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Stevelink SAM, Opie E, Pernet D, Gao H, Elliott P, Wessely S, Fear NT, Hotopf M, Greenberg N. Probable PTSD, depression and anxiety in 40,299 UK police officers and staff: Prevalence, risk factors and associations with blood pressure. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0240902. [PMID: 33180769 PMCID: PMC7660485 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0240902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Police employees undertake challenging duties which may adversely impact their health. This study explored the prevalence of and risk factors for probable mental disorders amongst a representative sample of UK police employees. The association between mental illness and alterations in blood pressure was also explored. METHODS Data were used from the Airwave Health Monitoring Study which was established to monitor the possible physical health impacts of a new communication system on police employees. Data included sociodemographic characteristics, lifestyle habits, depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and blood pressure. Descriptive statistics were used to explore the prevalence of probable mental disorders and associated factors. Stepwise linear regression was conducted, controlling for confounding variables, to examine associations between mental disorders and blood pressure. RESULTS The sample included 40,299 police staff, police constable/sergeants and inspectors or above. Probable depression was most frequently reported (9.8%), followed by anxiety (8.5%) and PTSD (3.9%). Groups at risk for probable mental disorders included police staff, and police employees who reported drinking heavily. Police employees exposed to traumatic incidents in the past six months had a doubling in rates of anxiety or depression and a six-fold increase in PTSD compared to those with no recent trauma exposure. Adjusted logistic regression models did not reveal any significant association between probable mental disorders and systolic blood pressure but significantly elevated diastolic blood pressure (≈1mmHg) was found across mental disorders. CONCLUSIONS These results show lower rates of probable mental disorders, especially PTSD, than reported in other studies focusing on police employees. Although mental ill health was associated with increased diastolic blood pressure, this was unlikely to be clinically significant. These findings highlight the importance of continued health monitoring of members of the UK police forces, focusing on employees recently exposed to traumatic incidents, heavy drinkers and police staff.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon A. M. Stevelink
- King’s Centre for Military Health Research, Department of Psychological Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Psychological Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Elena Opie
- King’s Centre for Military Health Research, Department of Psychological Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - David Pernet
- King’s Centre for Military Health Research, Department of Psychological Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - He Gao
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Elliott
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- NIHR Imperial College Biomedical Research Centre, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, London, United Kingdom
- Health Data Research UK London at Imperial College London, Faculty of Medicine, St Mary’s Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Wessely
- King’s Centre for Military Health Research, Department of Psychological Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nicola T. Fear
- King’s Centre for Military Health Research, Department of Psychological Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
- Academic Department of Military Mental Health, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Hotopf
- Department of Psychological Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
- South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Neil Greenberg
- King’s Centre for Military Health Research, Department of Psychological Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
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Rosenthal T, Alter A. Occupational stress and hypertension. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 6:2-22. [PMID: 22024667 DOI: 10.1016/j.jash.2011.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2011] [Revised: 08/30/2011] [Accepted: 09/06/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Occupational stress, or job strain, resulting from a lack of balance between job demands and job control, is considered one of the frequent factors in the etiology of hypertension in modern society. Stress, with its multifactorial causes, is complex and difficult to analyze at the physiological and psychosocial levels. The possible relation between job strain and blood pressure levels has been extensively studied, but the literature is replete with conflicting results regarding the relationship between the two. Further analysis of this relationship, including the many facets of job strain, may lead to operative proposals at the individual and public health levels designed to reduce the effects on health and well-being. In this article, we review the literature on the subject, discussing the various methodologies, confounding variables, and suggested approaches for a healthier work environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talma Rosenthal
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Hypertension Research Unit, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Israel.
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Discussion: Plastic Surgeon???s Life: Marvelous for Mind, Exhausting for Body. Plast Reconstr Surg 2004. [DOI: 10.1097/01.prs.0000133042.51669.e3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Steptoe A, Cropley M. Persistent high job demands and reactivity to mental stress predict future ambulatory blood pressure. J Hypertens 2000; 18:581-6. [PMID: 10826561 DOI: 10.1097/00004872-200018050-00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To test the hypothesis that work stress (persistent high job demands over 1 year) in combination with high reactivity to mental stress predict ambulatory blood pressure. DESIGN Assessment of cardiovascular responses to standardized behavioural tasks, job demands, and ambulatory blood pressure over a working day and evening after 12 months. PARTICIPANTS We studied 81 school teachers (26 men, 55 women), 36 of whom experienced persistent high job demands over 1 year, while 45 reported lower job demands. METHODS Participants were divided on the basis of high and low job demands, and high and low systolic pressure reactions to an uncontrollable stress task. Blood pressure and concurrent physical activity were monitored using ambulatory apparatus from 0900 to 2230 h on a working day. RESULTS Cardiovascular stress reactivity was associated with waist/hip ratio. Systolic and diastolic pressure during the working day were greater in high job demand participants who were stress reactive than in other groups, after adjustment for age, baseline blood pressure, body mass index and negative affectivity. The difference was not accounted for by variations in physical activity. CONCLUSIONS Cardiovascular stress reactivity and sustained psychosocial stress may act in concert to increase cardiovascular risk in susceptible individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Steptoe
- Department of Psychology, St George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, UK.
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Prada P, Okamoto MM, Furukawa LN, Machado UF, Heimann JC, Dolnikoff MS. High- or low-salt diet from weaning to adulthood: effect on insulin sensitivity in Wistar rats. Hypertension 2000; 35:424-9. [PMID: 10642336 DOI: 10.1161/01.hyp.35.1.424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Because of conflicting results in the literature, further studies are needed to confirm an association between the degree of salt consumption and insulin sensitivity. The aim of this study was to measure insulin sensitivity in rats fed from weaning to adulthood with a low (LSD), normal (NSD), or high (HSD) salt diet. Body weight, carcass lipid content, blood glucose, nonesterified fatty acids, plasma insulin, plasma renin activity, and a glucose transporter (GLUT4) were measured. A euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp was used in 52 anesthetized rats. Body weight was higher in rats on LSD than in those on NSD (P<0.05) or HSD (P<0.001). Percentage fat carcass content was higher (P<0.05) in rats on LSD than in those on NSD. Basal plasma insulin and glucose levels were not altered (P>0.05) by salt consumption. Nonesterified fatty acids were lower in rats on HSD than in those on LSD (P<0.05) or NSD (P<0.01). Glucose uptake was lower in rats on LSD than in those on NSD (P<0.05) or HSD (P<0. 001). When a euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp was used on pair-weight rats, similar results were obtained, which suggests that the effect of LSD on insulin sensitivity was not due to higher body weight. GLUT4 in insulin-sensitive tissues was increased in rats on HSD except in the cardiac muscle. Captopril treatment partially reversed low insulin sensitivity in LSD rats, whereas losartan did not change it, which indicates that the effect of LSD on insulin sensitivity is angiotensin independent. In conclusion, the present results demonstrate that chronic dietary salt restriction induces a decrease in insulin sensitivity not associated with renin-angiotensin system activity or body weight changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Prada
- Nephrology Department, Laboratory of Hypertension, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, Brazil
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Goldstein IB, Shapiro D, Chicz-DeMet A, Guthrie D. Ambulatory blood pressure, heart rate, and neuroendocrine responses in women nurses during work and off work days. Psychosom Med 1999; 61:387-96. [PMID: 10367621 DOI: 10.1097/00006842-199905000-00020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study examined women's cardiovascular and neuroendocrine responsiveness to work. METHODS Ambulatory blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) were recorded over 24-hour periods on 2 work and 2 off days during the luteal and follicular phases of the menstrual cycle in 138 registered nurses, aged 25 to 50 years. Urinary catecholamines and cortisol were measured for day and night periods. RESULTS During waking hours systolic BP (SBP), HR, and epinephrine were higher on work than off days. Diastolic BP (DBP) and HR were highest at work. Nurses scoring high on job demands had elevations in daytime SBP, daytime HR only on work days, and nighttime epinephrine on work days. Compared with those with short work histories, nurses employed longer had consistently higher norepinephrine levels during days and nights, and higher nighttime DBP during off days. In unmarried nurses compared with married nurses, nighttime cortisol was lower during all 4 days and norepinephrine was lower during days off. All findings were independent of actigraph-recorded activity. CONCLUSIONS Although the work environment leads to increased activity of the cardiovascular and sympathoadrenal medullary system in healthy women, the effects are modified by the woman's domestic role, by the length of her employment, and by the demands of her job.
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Affiliation(s)
- I B Goldstein
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles 90024-1759, USA.
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