Italian consensus guidelines for chronic pancreatitis

ESPEN practical guideline on clinical nutrition in acute and chronic pancreatitis

Both acute and chronic pancreatitis are frequent diseases of the pancreas, which, despite being of benign nature, are related to a significant risk of malnutrition and may require nutritional support. Acute necrotizing pancreatitis is encountered in 20 % of patients with acute pancreatitis, is associated with increased morbidity and mortality, and may require artificial nutrition by enteral or parenteral route, as well as additional endoscopic, radiological or surgical interventions. Chronic pancreatitis represents a chronic inflammation of the pancreatic gland with development of fibrosis. Abdominal pain leading to decreased oral intake, as well as exocrine and endocrine failure are frequent complications of the disease. All of the above represent risk factors related to malnutrition. Therefore, patients with chronic pancreatitis should be considered at risk, screened and supplemented accordingly. Moreover, osteoporosis and increased facture risk should be acknowledged in patients with chronic pancreatitis, and preventive measures should be considered.

Adverse events of pancreatic extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy: a literature review

Pancreatic stones are the result of pathophysiologic changes in chronic pancreatitis with an incidence of more than 90%. At present, pancreatic extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (P-ESWL) can be used as the first-line treatment for large or complex stones. Although a large number of studies have proven the safety and effectiveness of P-ESWL, we should also pay attention to postoperative adverse events, mainly due to the scattering of shock waves in the conduction pathway. Adverse events can be classified as either complications or transient adverse events according to the severity. Because the anatomic location of organs along the shock wave conducting pathway differs greatly, adverse events after P-ESWL are varied and difficult to predict. This paper outlines the mechanism, definition, classification, management and risk factors for adverse events related to P-ESWL. It also discusses the technique of P-ESWL, indications and contraindications of P-ESWL, and adverse events in special populations.

What is the significance of a faecal elastase-1 level between 200 and 500μg/g?

Background

Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency is a cause of malabsorption. It is generally diagnosed if faecal elastase-1 (FE-1) levels are below 200 µg/g. Pancreatic function is assumed to be normal when faecal elastase levels are >500 µg/g. The significance of faecal elastase levels above 200 µg/g but less than 500 µg/g is unclear.

Methods

This retrospective study reports the response to treatment in patients who had an FE-1 level between 200 and 500 µg/g.

Results

Of these 82 patients, 28 were offered pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT). A clinical response, defined as an improvement in their initial symptoms after commencing PERT, was seen in 20 patients (71%), 7 with potentially predisposing conditions and 13 with functional diarrhoea. PERT particularly abolished or improved diarrhoea, steatorrhoea and flatulence.

Conclusion

Clinicians should, therefore, be aware that a trial of PERT given to patients with FE-1 levels between 200 and 500 µg/g may lead to improvement in gastrointestinal symptoms.

Chronic pancreatitis and nutritional support

Malnutrition in patients with chronic pancreatitis is common, but its evaluation is often missed in clinical practice. Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency is the single most important cause of malnutrition; therefore, it needs to be screened for and treated appropriately. Specific diet regimens in patients suffering from chronic pancreatitis are rarely reported in the literature. Patients suffering from chronic pancreatitis have a higher demand for energy but a lower caloric intake secondary to pancreatic exocrine insufficiency, combined with the malabsorption of liposoluble vitamin and micronutrients, which needs be corrected by appropriate dietary counselling. Diabetes is frequently observed in chronic pancreatitis and classified as type 3c, which is characterized by low levels of both serum insulin and glucagon; therefore, there is a tendency towards hypoglycaemia in patients treated with insulin. Diabetes contributes to malnutrition in chronic pancreatitis. Strategies to treat exocrine and endocrine insufficiency are important to achieve better control of the disease.

Nonsurgical treatment for asymptomatic pancreatolithiasis is meaning: A case report

BACKGROUND

Many guidelines for nonsurgical treatment of pancreatolithiasis suggest little guidance for patients with pancreatolithiasis who do not have abdominal pain. Some patients with pancreatolithiasis whom we have treated nonsurgically with extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy did not have abdominal pain, and we describe one of them here.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A 42-year-old man complaining of an 8-kg weight loss over 6 months was admitted to a nearby hospital, where fasting blood sugar and hemoglobin A1c values were 500 mg/dL and 11.8%. Computed tomography showed stones in the head of the pancreas and dilation of the main pancreatic duct. He was referred to our hospital to be considered for nonsurgical treatment of pancreatolithiasis. His height and weight were 160 cm and 52 kg (body mass index, 20.31). No tenderness or other abdominal findings were evident. After obtaining informed consent for nonsurgical treatment despite absence of abdominal pain, we performed extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy. Computed tomography showed disappearance of stones from the pancreatic head. At discharge, his weight had increased to 62 kg and hemoglobin A1c was 6.8%, though antidiabetic medication has since become necessary.

CONCLUSION

We believe that nonsurgical treatment of pancreatolithiasis was helpful for this patient, and could improve exocrine and endocrine function in other patients without abdominal pain.

Optimizing nutrition in chronic pancreatitis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review aims to discuss recent developments in the nutritional management in chronic pancreatitis.

RECENT FINDINGS

Nutritional assessment should be comprehensive and include dietary history, anthropometry, and biochemical nutritional parameters. Micronutrients should be evaluated at least yearly and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) at every 2-yearly intervals. Studies on pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) have primarily evaluated coefficient of fat excretion (CFA), coefficient of nitrogen excretion (CNA), and stool weight. Two RCTs, in which patients were treated with PERT for 7 days in a blinded manner and subsequently extended for 6-12 months in an open-label manner, showed improvement in nutritional parameters. However, two subsequent RCTs failed to show any benefit, and the most recent observational study demonstrated persistence of malnutrition even after PERT. The reason for the latter findings were nonadherence to PERT and poor oral intake of calories. Therefore, it is essential to educate the patients on adherence, counsel on taking high-protein, high-calorie diet, and supplement nutrients in those with inadequate oral intake. Other associated manifestations, such as diabetes and related complications, and anxiety/depression could also contribute to malnutrition directly or indirectly, and should, therefore, be adequately managed.

SUMMARY

Nutritional assessment should be performed meticulously. Nutritional therapy should not be restricted to only PERT and nutritional supplementation, but should also include dietary counselling and disease related education.

Exosomal glypican-1 discriminates pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma from chronic pancreatitis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) diagnosis can be difficult in a chronic pancreatitis (CP) background, especially in its mass forming presentation. We aimed to assess the accuracy of glypican-1-positive circulating exosomes (GPC1+crExos) to distinguish PDAC from CP versus the state-of-the-art CA 19-9 biomarker.

METHODS

This was a unicentric prospective cohort. Endoscopic ultrasound with fine-needle aspiration or biopsy and blood tests (GPC1+crExos and serum CA 19-9) were performed.

RESULTS

The cohort comprised 60 PDAC and 29 CP (7 of which mass forming - MF) patients. Median levels of GPC1+crExos were significantly higher in PDAC (99.7%) versus CP (28.4%; p<0.0001) with an AUROC of 0.96 with 98.3% sensitivity and 86.2% specificity for a cut-off of 45.0% (p<0.0001); this outperforms CA 19-9 AUROC of 0.82 with 78.3% sensitivity and 65.5% specificity at a cut-off of 37 U/mL (p<0.0001). The superiority of% GPC1+crExos over CA 19-99 in differentiating PDAC from CP was observed in both early (stage I) and advanced tumors (stages II-IV).

CONCLUSION

Levels of GPC1+crExos coupled to beads enable differential diagnosis between PDAC and CP including its mass-forming presentation.

Vitamin D and Pancreatitis: A Narrative Review of Current Evidence

Emerging research indicates that vitamin D metabolic disorder plays a major role in both acute pancreatitis (AP) and chronic pancreatitis (CP). This has been demonstrated by studies showing that vitamin D deficiency is associated with pancreatitis and its anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic effects by binding with the vitamin D receptor (VDR). However, the role of vitamin D assessment and its management in pancreatitis remains poorly understood. In this narrative review, we discuss the recent advances in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in vitamin D/VDR signaling in pancreatic cells; the evidence from observational studies and clinical trials that demonstrate the connection among vitamin D, pancreatitis and pancreatitis-related complications; and the route of administration of vitamin D supplementation in clinical practice. Although further research is still required to establish the protective role of vitamin D and its application in disease, evaluation of vitamin D levels and its supplementation should be important strategies for pancreatitis management according to currently available evidence.

A brief review of clinical guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency

In recent years, several consensus and guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of chronic pancreatitis have been published. In 2017, the Russian and Pan-European (HaPanEU) consensus was published, in 2018 — the international consensus on minimal change pancreatitis, in 2020 — the clinical guidelines of the American College of Gastroenterology, in 2021 — the British clinical guidelines. Many of their provisions overlap. This review article analyzed the main provisions of the latest recommendations, taking into account the possibility of their adaptation to Russian clinical practice.

Assessment of pain associated with chronic pancreatitis: An international consensus guideline

Pain is the most common symptom in chronic pancreatitis (CP) with a major impact on quality of life. Few validated questionnaires to assess pain in CP exist, and the lack of consensus negatively impacts clinical management, research and meta-analysis. This guideline aims to review generic pain questionnaires for their usability in CP, to outline how pain assessment can be modified by confounding factors and pain types, to assess the value of additional measures such as quality of life, mental health and quantitative sensory testing, and finally to review pain assessment questionnaires used specifically in CP. A systematic review was done to answer 27 questions that followed the PICO (Population; Intervention; Comparator; Outcome) template. Quality of evidence of the statements was judged by Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) criteria. The manuscript was sent for review to 36 experts from various disciplines and continents in a multi-stage Delphi process, and finally reviewed by patient representatives. Main findings were that generic pain instruments are valid in most settings, but aspects of pain are specific for CP (including in children), and instruments have to account for the wide phenotypic variability and development of sensitization of the central nervous system. Side effects to treatment and placebo effects shall also be considered. Some multidimensional questionnaires are validated for CP and are recommended together with assessment of quality of life and psychiatric co-morbidities. This guideline will result in more homogeneous and comprehensive pain assessment to potentially improve management of painful CP.

Long-term outcome of pancreatic function following oncological surgery in children: Institutional experience and review of the literature

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic neoplasms are uncommon in children and in most cases they are benign or have low malignant potential. Pancreatoblastoma and solid pseudopapillary tumor are the most frequent types in early and late childhood, respectively. Complete resection, although burdened by severe complications, is the only curative treatment for these diseases. Pancreatic surgery may result in impaired exocrine and endocrine pancreatic function. However, limited data are available on the long-term pediatric pancreatic function following surgical resection.

AIM

To investigate endocrine and exocrine pancreatic function and growth after oncological pancreatic surgery in a pediatric series.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of all pediatric patients who underwent surgery for pancreatic neoplasm in our Institution from January 31, 2002 to the present was performed. Endocrine and exocrine insufficiency, auxological and fat-soluble vitamin status (A, D, E and clotting tests) were assessed at diagnosis and at every follow-up visit. Exocrine insufficiency was defined as steatorrhea with fecal elastase-1 < 200 µg/g stool, while endocrine insufficiency was identified as onset of Diabetes or Impaired Glucose Tolerance. Growth was evaluated based on body mass index (BMI) z-score trend.

RESULTS

Sixteen patients (12 girls and 4 boys, mean age 10.7 ± 5.3 years), were included. Nine patients (56%) had a neoplasm in the pancreatic head, 4 in the body/tail, 2 in the tail and 1 in the body. Histological findings were as follows: Solid pseudopapillary tumor in 10 patients (62.5%), insulinoma in 2 patients, neuroendocrine tumor in 2 patients and acinar cell carcinoma in 2 patients. The most frequent surgery was pancreaticoduodenectomy (50%). Exocrine failure occurred in 4 patients (25%) and endocrine failure in 2 patients (12.5%). Exocrine insufficiency occurred early (within 6 mo after surgery) and endocrine insufficiency later (8 and 10 years after surgery). Mean BMI z-score was 0.36 ± 1.1 at diagnosis and 0.27 ± 0.95 at the last assessment. Vitamin D was insufficient (< 30 ng/mL) in 8 of the 16 patients during the follow-up period. Vitamins A, E and clotting test were into the normal ranges in all patients.

CONCLUSION

Careful and long-term monitoring should follow any pancreatic surgery, to recognize and promptly treat exocrine and endocrine pancreatic insufficiency, which can occur after surgery.

Anemia as a Problem: GP Approach

BACKGROUND

Anemia is a presentation of an underlying disease or deficiency. As stated by the WHO, anemia is defined as hemoglobin (Hb) levels <12.0 g/dL in women and <13.0 g/dL in men. This review of clinical practice aimed to determine the diagnostic approach to anemia in primary care patients.

SUMMARY

Nutritional deficiencies, medications, chronic inflammatory conditions, malignancy, renal dysfunction, and bone marrow and inherent disorders contribute to anemia development. Anemia is classified and diagnosed by the values of hematological parameters, underlying pathological mechanism, and patient history. The diagnostic approach of anemia in primary care settings is focused on history, physical examination, laboratory findings including complete blood cell count, reticulocyte count, and peripheral smear examination, fecal occult blood test, and ultrasound findings.

KEY MESSAGES

Anemia is the most common hematological disorder that represents a major health burden worldwide. Hb levels alter with gender, ethnicity, and physiological status. Anemia is often multifactorial. The evaluation of a patient with anemia in primary care includes clinical history, physical examination, and laboratory findings with fecal occult blood test and abdominal ultrasound. The wide variations in general practice in European countries are based on different health care systems but also knowledge of GPs that reflect educational and research policy.

Swedish national guidelines for chronic pancreatitis

Chronic pancreatitis (CP) should be suspected in the case of recurrent upper abdominal pain of unknown origin and/or clinical signs of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI). Alcohol is the most common etiological factor associated with CP, others being smoking, male gender, and hereditary forms. CP is often associated with recurrent episodes of acute exacerbations.As of today, there is no accepted clinical definition of CP. However, irreversible morphological changes within the pancreas often occur, including dilatation of the main and branch pancreatic ducts, calcifications in ducts and parenchyma, parenchymal atrophy, and development of pseudocysts, though less so in the early phase of CP.

Nutritional management of chronic pancreatitis: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Malnutrition is a frequent complication of chronic pancreatitis. Adequate nutritional support is imperative, but there is still uncertainty about the optimal nutritional treatment. This work systematically compiles evidence from randomized controlled trials investigating dietary interventions in chronic pancreatitis and, in a further step, contrasts those findings with existing dietary recommendations.

METHODS

The literature search (PubMed and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials) included English and German full-text articles, which had been published in peer-reviewed journals. Two independent reviewers identified and selected studies. For meta-analysis, forest plots with 95% confidence intervals were generated using a random-effects model.

RESULTS

Eleven randomized controlled trials fulfilled all selection criteria. In these trials, the following dietary interventions were tested: antioxidant treatment (n = 6), vitamin D supplementation (n = 3), supplementation with oral nutritional supplements (n = 1), and symbiotics supplementation (n = 1). Studies were of good methodological quality (mean Jadad score of 3.6) but heterogeneous in terms of interventions and study populations. Only for vitamin D, there was convincing evidence for efficacy of supplementation. We found no effect for antioxidant treatment on pain relief (standardized mean difference = -0.12; 95% confidence interval -0.73 to 0.48) and limited generalizability for interventions with oral nutritional supplements and symbiotics.

CONCLUSIONS

Nutritional management in chronic pancreatitis remains challenging. As well-designed randomized controlled trials are scarce, in large part, recommendations can only be based on low-level evidence studies or expert opinion. For now, consumption of a balanced diet remains the cornerstone recommendation for prevention, whereas more goal-directed interventions are indicated for specific nutrient deficiencies.

Pain Management in Chronic Pancreatitis: Summary of Clinical Practice, Current Challenges and Potential Contribution of the M-ANNHEIM Classification

Abdominal pain, diarrhea with weight loss, and endocrine insufficiency represent the dominant symptoms of chronic pancreatitis (CP). High intensity of pain and constant pain have been shown to reduce quality of life in CP and may result in disability and increased health resource utilization. Various basic challenges and unanswered questions still exist regarding the treatment of pain in CP. Recently, limited evidence has been gained that early surgery for painful disease might be associated with better treatment results. Thus, timing of pancreatic surgery in painful disease represents a major issue that needs to be clarified in future studies. In this context, surveillance of patients is necessary in clinical practice. It appears that a generally accepted classification of the disease represents a major requirement for inter-institutional comparison of data with future progress in clinical research. Among recently proposed classification systems, the M-ANNHEIM classification system of CP with its recently presented M-ANNHEIM Surgery Score might be a useful tool to picture the course of the disease and to monitor treatment results. Future research is required to clarify the possible role of this system in the management of pain in CP. In the present article, we provide an overview of current status, challenges, and unanswered questions in the treatment of pain in CP, and we demonstrate the potential benefits of the M-ANNHEIM classification system in the management of painful CP.

Impaired exocrine pancreatic function in different stages of type 1 diabetes

INTRODUCTION

Aim of this study was to investigate the pancreatic exocrine function in patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D) by multiple non-invasive tests.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

The study is a single-center, cross-sectional study of pancreatic exocrine function in adult patients with new-onset or long-standing T1D and healthy controls.

RESULTS

Healthy controls, new-onset T1D, and long-standing T1D were similar for age at the time of the study, gender and body mass index (BMI) categories. Age of onset of T1D patients with long-standing disease was younger than that of patients with new-onset T1D (p<0.001). As expected, the three groups differed for C-peptide and hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels. Lipase activity measured by ¹³C-mixed triglyceride breath test was reduced progressively, although not significantly, from controls to recent-onset T1D and long-standing T1D participants. Fecal elastase-1 was significantly lower in participants with T1D, either new onset or long standing. Pancreatic amylase, lipase, retinol binding protein and prealbumin were significantly different across the groups, with a significant trend toward lower values in long-standing T1D and intermediate values in new-onset T1D, while no differences were observed for total amylase. The markers of impaired exocrine function tests (fecal elastase-1, serum pancreatic amylase and lipase) and of nutritional status (retinol binding protein and prealbumin levels) correlated with the reduction of fasting and urinary C-peptide.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results confirm that exocrine pancreatic impairment is a feature of T1D, with low fecal elastase-1, serum pancreatic amylase and lipase as specific markers, associated with reduced levels of nutritional indexes. Moreover, the evidence of more advanced insufficiency in long-standing disease reflects the chronic nature of this process, and its correlation with the residual β-cell function suggests parallel pathways for the impairment of the endocrine and exocrine pancreatic function.

Differences in In Vitro Properties of Pancreatin Preparations for Pancreatic Exocrine Insufficiency as Marketed in Russia and CIS

Background

Pancreatic enzyme-replacement therapy (PERT), provided as pancreatin to patients with pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI), is considered an essential substitute for the pivotal physiological function the pancreas fulfills in digestion. PEI involves a reduction in the synthesis and secretion of pancreatic enzymes (lipase, protease, amylase), which leads to an inadequate enzymatic response to a meal and consequently to maldigestion and malabsorption of nutrients. The efficacy of PERT is strongly dependent on enzyme activity, dissolution, and pancreatin particle size.

Objective

The physiological properties of eight pancreatin preparations (nine batches; five different brands) available in Russia and CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan) were investigated.

Methods

The lipase activity, dissolution, and particle size distribution of samples from multiple batches of pancreatin of different strengths were measured.

Results

Regarding lipase activities, all pancreatin preparations except Micrazim® matched the labeled content. Considerable differences were observed in particle size and dissolution.

Conclusion

Pancreatin preparations available in Russia and CIS demonstrate product-to-product and batch-to-batch variability regarding the measured properties of lipase activity, dissolution, and particle size. This may impact the efficacy of PERT and therefore clinical outcomes.

Chronic pancreatitis with ductal stones in the pancreatic head treated by surgery: a case report

Pancreatic duct stones are direct sequelae of chronic pancreatitis (CP) and can occur in ∼50% of patients. Selection of the appropriate treatment method for pancreatic duct stones depends on location, size and number of stones. We present a patient with upper abdominal pain and weight loss for the previous 3 months. Diagnostic workup detected a chronic inflammation of the pancreas with stone in the main pancreatic duct and a nodular lesion in the head of the pancreas. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography was performed without success. Given the rise in incidence and prevalence of CP, the potential complications and high mortality rate, it is imperative that physicians understand the risk factors, disease process and management of this disease. Pancreaticoduodenectomy in patients with CP is a feasible option for the treatment of focal cystic lesions to the head of the pancreas associated to pancreatic stone in selected cases.

International consensus guidelines on interventional endoscopy in chronic pancreatitis. Recommendations from the working group for the international consensus guidelines for chronic pancreatitis in collaboration with the International Association of Pancreatology, the American Pancreatic Association, the Japan Pancreas Society, and European Pancreatic Club

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

This paper is part of the international consensus guidelines on chronic pancreatitis, presenting for interventional endoscopy.

METHODS

An international working group with experts on interventional endoscopy evaluated 26 statements generated from evidence on 9 clinically relevant questions. The Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation approach was used to evaluate the level of evidence. To determine the level of agreement, a nine-point Likert scale was used for voting on the statements.

RESULTS

Strong consensus was obtained for 15 statements relating to nine questions including the recommendation that endoscopic intervention should be offered to patients with persistent severe pain but not to those without pain. Endoscopic decompression of the pancreatic duct could be used for immediate pain relief, and then offered surgery if this fails or needs repeated endoscopy. Endoscopic drainage is preferred for portal-splenic vein thrombosis and pancreatic fistula. A plastic stent should be placed and replaced 2-3 months later after insertion. Endoscopic extraction is indicated for stone fragments remaining after ESWL. Interventional treatment should be performed for symptomatic/complicated pancreatic pseudocysts. Endoscopic treatment is recommended for bile duct obstruction and afterwards surgery if this fails or needs repeated endoscopy. Surgery may be offered if there is significant calcification and/or mass of the pancreatic head. Percutaneous endovascular treatment is preferred for hemosuccus pancreaticus. Surgical treatment is recommended for duodenal stenosis due to chronic pancreatitis.

CONCLUSIONS

This international expert consensus guideline provides evidenced-based statements concerning indications and key aspects for interventional endoscopy in the management of patients with chronic pancreatitis.

Effects of Pancreatic Enzyme Replacement Therapy on Body Weight and Nutritional Assessments After Pancreatoduodenectomy in a Randomized Trial

BACKGROUND & AIMS

We studied the effects of pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) on body weight, nutritional status, and quality of life (QoL) in patients with pancreatic exocrine insufficiency after pancreatoduodenectomy.

METHODS

We performed a randomized, double-blind trial of 304 patients who underwent pancreatoduodenectomy at 7 tertiary referral hospitals in South Korea. Patients with fecal levels of elastase of 200 μg/g or less, before and after surgery, were assigned randomly to groups that received PERT (a single capsule of 40,000 IU pancreatin, Norzyme (40,000 IU, Pankreatan; Nordmark Arzneimittel GmbH & Co, Uetersen, Germany), 3 times each day during meals for 3 months; n = 151) or placebo (n = 153). Protocol completion was defined as taking more than two thirds of the total dose without taking other digestive enzymes; the protocol was completed by 71 patients in the PERT group and 93 patients in the placebo group. Patients underwent a physical examination, oral glucose tolerance tests, and blood tests at baseline and at month 3 of the study period. The primary end point was change in body weight. Secondary end points were changes in bowel habits, nutritional parameters, and QoL.

RESULTS

In the per-protocol analysis, 3 months after the study began, patients in the PERT group gained a mean of 1.09 kg in weight and patients in the placebo group lost a mean of 2.28 kg (difference between groups, 3.37 kg; P < .001). However, no difference in body weight was observed between groups in the intent-to-treat analysis. Three months after the study began, the mean serum levels of prealbumin increased by 10.9 mg/dL in the PERT group and increased by 7.8 mg/dL in the placebo group (P = .002). Poor compliance to PERT was a significant risk factor for weight loss (P < .001). There was no significant difference in QoL scores between groups.

CONCLUSIONS

In the intent-to-treat analysis of data from a randomized trial, we found no significant effect of PERT on mean body weights of patients with pancreatic exocrine insufficiency after pancreatoduodenectomy. However, with active education and monitoring, PERT could increase body weight and nutritional parameters. ClinicalTrials.gov no: NCT02127021.

Chronic pancreatitis with IBS-like syndrome: approach to therapy

Aim.To determine approaches of the exacerbations treatment of chronic pancreatitis (CP) with IBS (irritable bowel syndrome)-like syndrome. Materials and methods.312 patients with exacerbation of CP were observed and received standard therapy: antispasmodics, enzymes, proton pump inhibitors. 85 (27.2%) patients had no response to treatment. After excluding obstructive CP, celiac disease, decompensation of diabetes (DD), ischemic and microscopic colitis, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) as a cause of abdominal pain and intestinal dysfunction, a group of 54 patients with exacerbation of CP and IBS-like syndrome was isolated. They were divided into 2 groups: group 1 persons receiving with standard treatment of CP ciprofloxacin in a dose of 500 mg 2 times a day for 10 days (26 patients), group 2 rifaximin 400 mg 3 times a day for 10 days (28 patients). The dynamics of clinical picture, biocenosis indices, endoscopic, morphological features of the colon, interleukin-2 (IL-2), IL-6, IL-8 concentration in the colon mucosa (CA) were evaluated. Results.IBS-like syndrome was determined in 54 (63.5%) patients with prolonged (more than 4 weeks) exacerbation of CP. A modification of therapy is proposed with the results of clinical and instrumental, laboratory, bacteriological studies. 68% of patients with exacerbation of CP, receiving in addition to the standard regimen rifaximin, achieved clinical improvement, normalization of intestinal biocenosis, reduced concentrations of cytokines in tissues, reducing signs of chronic inflammation in the colon mucosa with reducing concentrations of IL-2, IL-6, IL-8 in colon mucosa (p0.05). Conclusion.Exacerbation of CP, resistant to standard therapy, may be associated with the formation of IBS-like syndrome. The inclusion of rifaximin in the complex therapy of prolonged exacerbation of CP contributes to the relief of intestinal dysfunction, abdominal pain of intestine, improves biocenosis, reduces inflammatory modifications, and reduces the concentration of cytokines in the colon mucosa.

Long-term results of resection of the head of the pancreas due to chronic pancreatitis: Pancreaticoduodenectomy or duodenum-preserving cephalic pancreatectomy?

INTRODUCTION

Chronic pain in chronic pancreatitis is difficult to manage. The objective of our study is to assess the control of pain that is refractory to medical treatment in patients with an inflammatory mass in the head of the pancreas, as well as to compare the two surgical techniques.

METHODS

A retrospective study included patients treated surgically between 1989 and 2011 who had been refractory to medical treatment with inflammation of the head of the pancreas. An analysis of the short and long-term results was done to compare patients who had undergone pancreaticoduodenectomy (PD) and/or resection of the head of the pancreas with duodenal preservation (RHPDP).

RESULTS

22 PD and 12 RHPDP were performed. Postoperative complications were observed in 14% of patients, the most frequent being delayed gastric emptying (14.7%) and pancreatic fistula (11.7%). No statistically significant differences were found in terms of surgical technique. Pain control was satisfactory in 85% of patients, 43% presented de novo diabetes mellitus, and 88% returned to their work activities. Fourteen patients died during follow-up, 7 due to malignancies, and some were related to tobacco use and alcohol consumption. The overall 5 and 10 year survival rates were 88% and 75% respectively.

CONCLUSION

Cephalic resection in patients with intractable pain in chronic pancreatitis is an effective therapy that provides good long-term results in terms of pain control, with no significant differences between the two surgical techniques. Patients with chronic pancreatitis have a high mortality rate associated with de novo malignancies.

Ultrasound as First Line Step in Anaemia Diagnostics

This review covers the role of ultrasonography as an essential non-invasive diagnostic approach when facing patients with anaemia, a common clinical problem. Abdomen ultrasound is well recognised as a first-line examination in the setting of blood loss, both acute and chronic. Less is clear about the additional opportunities, given by ultrasound in anaemia, due to the many other possible causes. Here we provide information on the utility of ultrasound in different contexts and a practical guide for clinicians facing anaemic patients.

Clube Português do Pâncreas Recommendations for Chronic Pancreatitis: Etiology, Natural History, and Diagnosis (Part I)

Chronic pancreatitis (CP) is a heterogeneous disease, with different causes and often a long delay between onset and full classic presentation. Clinical presentation depends on the stage of the disease. In earlier stages, recurrent episodes of acute pancreatitis are the major signs dominating clinical presentation. As the inflammatory process goes on, less acute episodes occur, and pain adopts different aspects or may even disappear. After 10-15 years from onset, functional insufficiency occurs. Then, a classic presentation with pain and pancreatic exocrine and endocrine insufficiency appears. Diagnosis remains challenging in the early stages of the disease, as its initial presentation is usually ill-defined and overlaps with other digestive disorders. Computed tomography and magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography should be the first choice in patients with suspected CP. If the results are normal or equivocal but still there is a high suspicion of CP, the next option should be endoscopic ultrasound. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography is mainly a therapeutic technique, and for the diagnostic purpose should only be used when all other imaging modalities and pancreatic function tests have been exhausted. Indirect tests are used to quantify the degree of insufficiency in already-established late CP. Recommendations on CP were developed by Clube Português do Pâncreas (CPP), based on literature review to answer predefined topics, subsequently discussed and approved by all members of CPP. Recommendations are separated in two parts: "chronic pancreatitis etiology, natural history, and diagnosis," and "chronic pancreatitis medical, endoscopic, and surgical treatment." This abstract pertains to part I.

Role of Fibre in Nutritional Management of Pancreatic Diseases

The role of fibre intake in the management of patients with pancreatic disease is still controversial. In acute pancreatitis, a prebiotic enriched diet is associated with low rates of pancreatic necrosis infection, hospital stay, systemic inflammatory response syndrome and multiorgan failure. This protective effect seems to be connected with the ability of fibre to stabilise the disturbed intestinal barrier homeostasis and to reduce the infection rate. On the other hand, in patients with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, a high content fibre diet is associated with an increased wet fecal weight and fecal fat excretion because of the fibre inhibition of pancreatic enzymes. The mechanism by which dietary fibre reduces the pancreatic enzyme activity is still not clear. It seems likely that pancreatic enzymes are absorbed on the fibre surface or entrapped in pectin, a gel-like substance, and are likely inactivated by anti-nutrient compounds present in some foods. The aim of the present review is to highlight the current knowledge on the role of fibre in the nutritional management of patients with pancreatic disorders.

A randomized-controlled trial of early endotherapy versus wait-and-see policy for mild symptomatic pancreatic stones in chronic pancreatitis

BACKGROUND

Although surgical or endoscopic treatment is effective for pain control in symptomatic calcified chronic pancreatitis, it is still unknown whether early intervention in mild symptomatic pancreatic stones would reduce the frequency of acute exacerbation and improve long-term outcomes. The aim of this randomized-controlled trial was to explore the efficacy of early endotherapy for mild symptomatic pancreatic stones in comparison with the wait-and-see policy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Patients with mild symptoms because of pancreatic stones were assigned randomly to the endotherapy or the wait-and-see group. The wait-and-see group received endotherapy only when they developed refractory exacerbation or intractable pain. The primary outcome was the cumulative incidence of intolerable pain attacks and acute exacerbation. The secondary outcomes were the development of pancreatic insufficiency and the progression of pancreatic atrophy.

RESULTS

A total of 20 patients were enrolled between March 2008 and March 2011. The study was terminated prematurely because of the poor patient enrollment. Early endotherapy tended to reduce the cumulative incidence of pain attacks and exacerbation, (P=0.17) with the composite incidence of pain attacks and exacerbation of 30% in the endotherapy group and 60% in the wait-and-see group. There were no significant differences in terms of diabetic status and the presence of steatorrhea. The thickness of the pancreas decreased significantly in the wait-and-see group (9.2-6.8 mm, P=0.041), but not in the endotherapy group (8.7-9.0 mm, P=0.60).

CONCLUSION

In a small group of patients, early endotherapy in mild symptomatic chronic pancreatitis was associated with a trend toward a minor number of acute attacks and atrophy progression of the pancreas.

Practical guide to the management of chronic pancreatitis

Chronic pancreatitis (CP) is an irreversible fibroinflammatory disorder of the pancreas. It presents with relapsing, remitting upper abdominal pain accompanied by features of malabsorption due to pancreatic exocrine insufficiency and endocrine deficiency with the development of diabetes mellitus. The associated increased hospitalisation and high economic burden are related to CP often presenting at advanced stage with irreversible consequences. Diagnosing CP at an early stage is still challenging and therefore CP is believed to be under-reported. Our understanding of this disease has evolved over the last few years with attempts to redesign the definition of CP. Better recognition of the risk factors and conditions associated with CP can lead to an earlier diagnosis and coupled with a multidisciplinary approach to treatment, ultimately reduce complications. This article reviews the epidemiology, risk factors, diagnosis and management of CP.

Assessment of Exocrine Function of Pancreas Following Pancreaticoduodenectomy

Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI) is a common long-term complication after pancreaticoduodenectomy (PD) and is observed in 23-80% of patients. As the postoperative mortality after PD has substantially decreased, it warrants more attention on the diagnosis and treatment of functional long-term consequences after PD. These include PEI and endocrine insufficiency that can result in significant nutritional impairment and often adversely impacts quality of life (QOL) of the patient. A PubMed search was performed for articles using key words "pancreatic exocrine insufficiency"; "pancreaticoduodenectomy"; "quality of life after pancreaticoduodenectomy"; "stool elastase"; "direct, indirect tests for pancreatic exocrine insufficiency"; "pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy." Relevant studies were shortlisted and analyzed. This review summarizes relevant studies addressing PEI following PD. We also discuss functional changes after PD, risk factors and predictive factors for postoperative PEI, clinical symptoms, direct and indirect tests for estimation of PEI, pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT), and QOL after pancreatic resection for malignancy. It was found that significant PEI occurs in most patients following PD. Fecal elastase 1 is an easy indirect test and should be performed routinely in both symptomatic and asymptomatic patients after PD. PERT should be considered in every patient after PD with the aim to improve the QOL and perhaps even their long time survival.

Russian consensus on exo- and endocrine pancreatic insufficiency after surgical treatment

The Russian consensus on exo- and endocrine pancreatic insufficiency after surgical treatment was prepared on the initiative of the Russian "Pancreatic Club" on the Delphi method. His goal was to clarify and consolidate the opinions of specialists on the most relevant issues of diagnosis and treatment of exo- and endocrine insufficiency after surgical interventions on the pancreas. An interdisciplinary approach is provided by the participation of leading gastroenterologists and surgeons.

Alcohol-related chronic exocrine pancreatic insufficiency: diagnosis and therapeutic management. A proposal for treatment by the Italian Association for the Study of the Pancreas (AISP) and the Italian Society of Alcohology (SIA)

Current estimates of the prevalence of chronic pancreatitis, one of the most common causes of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, are in the range of 3-10 per 100,000 people in many parts of the world. Alcohol consumption is a very important risk factor for exocrine pancreatic insufficiency and is involved in nearly half of all cases. The main hypothesis regarding the role of chronic alcohol consumption in pancreatitis is that there must be additional environmental or genetic risk factors involved for ongoing damage to occur. Treatment of patients with alcohol-related exocrine pancreatic insufficiency is complex, as the patient has two concomitant pathologies, alcohol-use disorder (AUD) and exocrine pancreatic insufficiency/chronic pancreatitis. Alcohol abstinence is the starting point for treatment, although even this along with the most advanced therapies allow only a slowdown in progression rather than restoration of function. This position paper of the Italian Association for the Study of the Pancreas and the Italian Society of Alcohology provides an overview of the pathogenesis of alcohol-related pancreatitis and discuss diagnostic issues. Treatment options for both exocrine pancreatic insufficiency/chronic pancreatitis (with a focus on pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy) and AUD (acamprosate, disulfiram, oral naltrexone, long-acting injectable naltrexone, sodium oxybate, nalmefene, baclofen, and psychosocial interventions) are also reviewed.

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency: prevalence, diagnosis, and management

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is a condition caused by reduced or inappropriate secretion or activity of pancreatic juice and its digestive enzymes, pancreatic lipase in particular. EPI can result in clinical manifestation and biochemical alterations causing reduced quality of life and life-threating complications. EPI is common in pancreatic disorders, where it should be suspected and actively investigated, and in many extrapancreatic conditions. There are various tests available to diagnose EPI, with indirect, noninvasive ones, such as concentration of fecal elastase being more commonly employed. Administration of pancreatic enzymes replacement therapy remains the mainstay of EPI treatment. The present review article will discuss current evidence regarding the prevalence of EPI, the available tests to diagnose it and its treatment.

Applying Machine Learning Techniques to Identify Undiagnosed Patients with Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency

BACKGROUND

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is a serious condition characterized by a lack of functional exocrine pancreatic enzymes and the resultant inability to properly digest nutrients. EPI can be caused by a variety of disorders, including chronic pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer, and celiac disease. EPI remains underdiagnosed because of the nonspecific nature of clinical symptoms, lack of an ideal diagnostic test, and the inability to easily identify affected patients using administrative claims data.

OBJECTIVES

To develop a machine learning model that identifies patients in a commercial medical claims database who likely have EPI but are undiagnosed.

METHODS

A machine learning algorithm was developed in Scikit-learn, a Python module. The study population, selected from the 2014 Truven MarketScan® Commercial Claims Database, consisted of patients with EPI-prone conditions. Patients were labeled with 290 condition category flags and split into actual positive EPI cases, actual negative EPI cases, and unlabeled cases. The study population was then randomly divided into a training subset and a testing subset. The training subset was used to determine the performance metrics of 27 models and to select the highest performing model, and the testing subset was used to evaluate performance of the best machine learning model.

RESULTS

The study population consisted of 2088 actual positive EPI cases, 1077 actual negative EPI cases, and 437 530 unlabeled cases. In the best performing model, the precision, recall, and accuracy were 0.91, 0.80, and 0.86, respectively. The best-performing model estimated that the number of patients likely to have EPI was about 12 times the number of patients directly identified as EPI-positive through a claims analysis in the study population. The most important features in assigning EPI probability were the presence or absence of diagnosis codes related to pancreatic and digestive conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Machine learning techniques demonstrated high predictive power in identifying patients with EPI and could facilitate an enhanced understanding of its etiology and help to identify patients for possible diagnosis and treatment.

Recommendations from the United European Gastroenterology evidence-based guidelines for the diagnosis and therapy of chronic pancreatitis

BACKGROUND

In collaboration with United European Gastroenterology, the working group on 'Harmonizing diagnosis and treatment of chronic pancreatitis across Europe' (HaPanEU) developed European guidelines for the management of chronic pancreatitis using an evidence-based approach.

METHODS

Recommendations of multidisciplinary review groups based on systematic literature reviews to answer predefined clinical questions are summarised. Recommendations are graded using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation system.

RESULTS

Recommendations covered topics related to the clinical management of chronic pancreatitis: aetiology, diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis with imaging, diagnosis of pancreatic exocrine insufficiency, surgical therapy, medical therapy, endoscopic therapy, treatment of pancreatic pseudocysts, pancreatic pain, nutrition and malnutrition, diabetes mellitus and the natural course of the disease and quality of life.

CONCLUSIONS

The HaPanEU/United European Gastroenterology guidelines provide evidence-based recommendations concerning key aspects of the medical and surgical management of chronic pancreatitis based on current available evidence. These recommendations should serve as a reference standard for existing management of the disease and as a guide for future clinical research. This article summarises the HaPanEU recommendations and statements.

Vitamins D and K as Factors Associated with Osteopathy in Chronic Pancreatitis: A Prospective Multicentre Study (P-BONE Study)

Background

Osteopathy is common in patients with chronic pancreatitis (CP), but previous studies carry several limitations. Vitamin K is essential for bone metabolism, but its role in this setting has never been investigated. Our aim is to assess the prevalence of osteoporosis and osteopenia in CP patients, and to investigate the association between osteopathy and CP features and nutritional parameters, especially vitamin D and K levels.

Methods

Multicentre cross-sectional study on CP patients diagnosed according to M-ANNHEIM criteria. Bone density was evaluated by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and pancreatic function by faecal elastase. Nutritional evaluation included vitamin D and vitamin K. Differences between patients with or without osteopathy were evaluated. The association between investigated variables and bone density were analysed with logistic regression analysis.

Results

In total, 211 CP patients were enrolled at eight Centres (67% men; mean age 60). In total, 18% had advanced-marked CP, 56% suffered from pancreatic exocrine insufficiency and disease aetiology was alcoholic in 43%. Vitamin D and K were deficient in 56% and 32%, respectively. Osteopenia was diagnosed in 42% and osteoporosis in 22%. In the multivariate analysis, female sex (OR 2.78), age (OR 1.07 per year) and higher BMI (OR 0.84) were associated with the presence of osteoporosis. In male patients, the only factor associated with osteoporosis was vitamin K deficiency (OR 4.23).

Conclusion

The present data confirm a high rate of osteopathy in CP patients and highlight the relevance of vitamin K deficiency as only factor associated with osteoporosis in male patients for the first time.

Diagnostic and therapeutic recommendations for chronic pancreatitis. Recommendations of the Working Group of the Polish Society of Gastroenterology and the Polish Pancreas Club

This article describes the latest diagnostic and therapeutic recommendations in chronic pancreatitis, developed by the Working Group of the Polish Society of Gastroenterology and the Polish Pancreas Club. The recommendations refer to the diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis, autoimmune pancreatitis, conservative management, treatment of pain, and exocrine and endocrine pancreatic insufficiency, treatment of chronic pancreatitis by endoscopic and surgical methods, and oncological surveillance of chronic pancreatitis. This paper refers to the Polish recommendations published in 2011, which have been updated and supplemented. All recommendations were voted by experts of the Polish Society of Gastroenterology and the Polish Pancreas Club, who evaluated them each time on a five-degree scale, where I meant full acceptance, II – acceptance with some reservation, III – acceptance with serious reservation, IV – rejection with some reservation and V – full rejection. The results of the voting, together with a brief commentary, have been included with each recommendation put to the vote. In addition, the expert group assessed the value of clinical studies on which the statements are based, on a scale where A means high (based on meta-analyses and randomised clinical trials), B means medium (based on clinical trials and observational studies), and C means low (based mainly on expert opinion).

Guidelines for the investigation of chronic diarrhoea in adults: British Society of Gastroenterology, 3rd edition

Chronic diarrhoea is a common problem, hence clear guidance on investigations is required. This is an updated guideline from 2003 for the investigations of chronic diarrhoea commissioned by the Clinical Services and Standards Committee of the British Society of Gastroenterology (BSG). This document has undergone significant revision in content through input by 13 members of the Guideline Development Group (GDG) representing various institutions. The GRADE system was used to appraise the quality of evidence and grading of recommendations.

Gut Microbiota-Immune System Crosstalk and Pancreatic Disorders

Gut microbiota is key to the development and modulation of the mucosal immune system. It plays a central role in several physiological functions, in the modulation of inflammatory signaling and in the protection against infections. In healthy states, there is a perfect balance between commensal and pathogens, and microbiota and the immune system interact to maintain gut homeostasis. The alteration of such balance, called dysbiosis, determines an intestinal bacterial overgrowth which leads to the disruption of the intestinal barrier with systemic translocation of pathogens. The pancreas does not possess its own microbiota, and it is believed that inflammatory and neoplastic processes affecting the gland may be linked to intestinal dysbiosis. Increasing research evidence testifies a correlation between intestinal dysbiosis and various pancreatic disorders, but it remains unclear whether dysbiosis is the cause or an effect. The analysis of specific alterations in the microbiome profile may permit to develop novel tools for the early detection of several pancreatic disorders, utilizing samples, such as blood, saliva, and stools. Future studies will have to elucidate the mechanisms by which gut microbiota is modulated and how it tunes the immune system, in order to be able to develop innovative treatment strategies for pancreatic disorders.

Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy after gastric resection: An update

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is one of the possible mechanisms of fat maldigestion following gastric surgery, together with reduced food intake, loss of gastric reservoir, small bowel bacterial overgrowth and rapid small bowel transit. Oral pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) is the mainstay of treatment for EPI. The efficacy and safety of pancreatic enzyme substitution in patients following gastric resection remains unclear. This review article summarizes relevant studies addressing PERT after gastric resection.

Diagnosis and treatment in chronic pancreatitis: an international survey and case vignette study

BACKGROUND

The aim of the study was to evaluate the current opinion and clinical decision-making process of international pancreatologists, and to systematically identify key study questions regarding the diagnosis and treatment of chronic pancreatitis (CP) for future research.

METHODS

An online survey, including questions regarding the diagnosis and treatment of CP and several controversial clinical case vignettes, was send by e-mail to members of various international pancreatic associations: IHPBA, APA, EPC, ESGE and DPSG.

RESULTS

A total of 288 pancreatologists, 56% surgeons and 44% gastroenterologists, from at least 47 countries, participated in the survey. About half (48%) of the specialists used a classification tool for the diagnosis of CP, including the Mayo Clinic (28%), Mannheim (25%), or Büchler (25%) tools. Overall, CT was the preferred imaging modality for evaluation of an enlarged pancreatic head (59%), pseudocyst (55%), calcifications (75%), and peripancreatic fat infiltration (68%). MRI was preferred for assessment of main pancreatic duct (MPD) abnormalities (60%). Total pancreatectomy with auto-islet transplantation was the preferred treatment in patients with parenchymal calcifications without MPD abnormalities and in patients with refractory pain despite maximal medical, endoscopic, and surgical treatment. In patients with an enlarged pancreatic head, 58% preferred initial surgery (PPPD) versus 42% initial endoscopy. In patients with a dilated MPD and intraductal stones 56% preferred initial endoscopic ± ESWL treatment and 29% preferred initial surgical treatment.

CONCLUSION

Worldwide, clinical decision-making in CP is largely based on local expertise, beliefs and disbeliefs. Further development of evidence-based guidelines based on well designed (randomized) studies is strongly encouraged.

Paraduodenal pancreatitis as a mimicker of pancreatic adenocarcinoma: MRI evaluation

PURPOSE

To evaluate the MRI features of paraduodenal pancreatitis (PDP) and to define useful signs to differentiate PDP from pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We reviewed the MRI scans of 56 patients, 28 affected by PDP and 28 by PDAC, all pathologically proven. The following parameters were evaluated: signal intensity of the lesion on T1-, T2-WI, DWI (b800) and after contrast medium administration; presence of cysts; dilation of common hepatic duct and main pancreatic duct; focal thickening of the second portion of the duodenum; maximum diameter and volume of the lesion.

RESULTS

Both PDPs and PDACs were more frequently hypointense on T1-WI, iso-hyperintense on T2-WI, hypointense in the pancreatic phase and iso-hypointense in the venous phase (p>0.05); in the delayed phase most PDP were hyperintense (p=0.0031); on DWI 71.4% PDPs were isointense and all PDACs were hyperintense (p=0.0041). Cystic components were present in 85.7% PDPs (p=0.0011); double duct sign was present in 50% PDACs (p=0.0048); focal thickening of the duodenum was depicted in 89.3 PDPs (p=0.0012). PDPs were larger than PDACs (p=0.0003).

CONCLUSION

The most suggestive signs of PDP are: signal hyperintensity in the delayed phase, isointensity on DWI, presence of cysts, focal thickening of the duodenum and large size of the lesion.

Risk factors for pain after Frey's procedure in chronic pancreatitis

Pancreatic pain is the most frequent symptom of chronic pancreatitis (CP) and is difficult to treat. This retrospective study aimed to determine the risk factors for pain in CP.From January 2009 and March 2014, 75 consecutive patients with CP who underwent Frey's procedure were reviewed for this study. According to Izbicki pain scores, these patients were divided into 2 groups: (1) pain (Izbicki pain score of >10 after a decrease of >50%) and (2) pain-free (Izbicki pain score of ≤10). Demographic data, medical history, postoperative variables, and follow-up evaluations of the patients were documented.The postoperative pain score (11.8) was significantly lower than the preoperative score (51.8) after a median follow-up of 4.2 years. Alcoholism (odds ratio [OR] 7.767, P = .002) and preoperative analgesic medication use (OR 4.113, P = .030) were independent risk factors for pain.Frey's procedure is an effective operation for pain relief in patients with CP. Alcoholism and preoperative analgesic medication use were 2 factors for failure to achieve complete pain relief.

The Russian consensus on the diagnosis and treatment of chronic pancreatitis: Enzyme replacement therapy

Pancreatology Club Professional Medical Community, 1A.S. Loginov Moscow Clinical Research and Practical Center, Moscow Healthcare Department, Moscow; 2A.I. Evdokimov Moscow State University of Medicine and Dentistry, Ministry of Health of Russia, Moscow; 3Kazan State Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russia, Kazan; 4Kazan (Volga) Federal University, Kazan; 5Far Eastern State Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russia, Khabarovsk; 6Morozov City Children’s Clinical Hospital, Moscow Healthcare Department, Moscow; 7I.I. Mechnikov North-Western State Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russia, Saint Petersburg; 8Siberian State Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russia, Tomsk; 9M.F. Vladimirsky Moscow Regional Research Clinical Institute, Moscow; 10Maimonides State Classical Academy, Moscow; 11V.I. Razumovsky State Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russia, Saratov; 12I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russia, Moscow; 13S.M. Kirov Military Medical Academy, Ministry of Defense of Russia, Saint Petersburg; 14Surgut State Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russia, Surgut; 15City Clinical Hospital Five, Moscow Healthcare Department, Moscow; 16Nizhny Novgorod Medical Academy, Ministry of Health of Russia, Nizhny Novgorod; 17Territorial Clinical Hospital Two, Ministry of Health of the Krasnodar Territory, Krasnodar; 18Saint Petersburg State Pediatric Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russia, Saint Petersburg; 19Rostov State Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russia, Rostov-on-Don; 20Omsk Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russia, Omsk; 21Russian Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education, Ministry of Health of Russia, Moscow; 22Novosibirsk State Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russia, Novosibirsk; 23Stavropol State Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russia, Stavropol; 24Kemerovo State Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russia, Kemerovo; 25N.I. Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russia, Moscow; 26A.M. Nikiforov All-Russian Center of Emergency and Radiation Medicine, Russian Ministry for Civil Defense, Emergencies and Elimination of Consequences of Natural Disasters, Saint Petersburg; 27Research Institute for Medical Problems of the North, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Krasnoyarsk; 28S.P. Botkin City Clinical Hospital, Moscow Healthcare Department, Moscow; 29Tver State Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russia, Tver The Russian consensus on the diagnosis and treatment of chronic pancreatitis has been prepared on the initiative of the Russian Pancreatology Club to clarify and consolidate the opinions of Russian specialists (gastroenterologists, surgeons, and pediatricians) on the most significant problems of diagnosis and treatment of chronic pancreatitis. This article continues a series of publications explaining the most significant interdisciplinary consensus statements and deals with enzyme replacement therapy.

Validation of Demographics, Etiology, and Risk Factors for Chronic Pancreatitis in the USA: A Report of the North American Pancreas Study (NAPS) Group

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Our aim was to validate recent epidemiologic trends and describe the distribution of TIGAR-O risk factors in chronic pancreatitis (CP) patients.

METHODS

The NAPS-2 Continuation and Validation (NAPS2-CV) study prospectively enrolled 521 CP patients from 13 US centers from 2008 to 2012. CP was defined by definitive changes in imaging, endoscopy, or histology. Data were analyzed after stratification by demographic factors, physician-defined etiology, participating center, and TIGAR-O risk factors.

RESULTS

Demographics and physician-defined etiology in the NAPS2-CV study were similar to the original NAPS2 study. Mean age was 53 years (IQR 43, 62) with 55% males and 87% white. Overall, alcohol was the single most common etiology (46%) followed by idiopathic etiology (24%). Alcohol etiology was significantly more common in males, middle-aged (35-65 years), and non-whites. Females and elderly (≥65 years) were more likely to have idiopathic etiology, while younger patients (<35 years) to have genetic etiology. Variability in etiology was noted by participating centers (e.g., alcohol etiology ranged from 27 to 67% among centers enrolling ≥25 patients). Smoking was the most commonly identified (59%) risk factor followed by alcohol (53%), idiopathic (30%), obstructive (19%), and hyperlipidemia (13%). The presence of multiple TIGAR-O risk factors was common, with 1, 2, ≥3 risk factors observed in 27.6, 47.6, and 23.6% of the cohort, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Our data validate the current epidemiologic trends in CP. Alcohol remains the most common physician-defined etiology, while smoking was the most commonly identified TIGAR-O risk factor. Identification of multiple risk factors suggests CP to be a complex disease.

Negotiating the complexities of exocrine and endocrine dysfunction in chronic pancreatitis

Chronic pancreatitis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the pancreas characterised by irreversible morphological change and typically causing pain and/or permanent loss of function. This progressive, irreversible disease results in destruction of healthy pancreatic tissue and the development of fibrous scar tissue. Gradual loss of exocrine and endocrine function follows, along with clinical manifestations such as steatorrhoea, abdominal pain and diabetes. Nutrition in chronic pancreatitis has been described as a problem area and, until recently, there was little research on the topic. It is often asserted that >90 % of the pancreas must be damaged before exocrine insufficiency occurs; however, an exploration of the original studies from the 1970s found that the data do not support this assertion. The management of steatorrhoea with pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy is the mainstay of nutritional management, and early identification and treatment is a key. The presence of steatorrhoea, coupled with poor dietary intake (due to intractable abdominal pain, gastrointestinal side effects and often alcoholism) renders the chronic pancreatitis patients at considerable risk for undernutrition, muscle depletion and fat-soluble vitamin deficiency. Premature osteoporosis/osteopenia afflicts two-thirds of patients as a consequence of poor dietary intake of calcium and vitamin D, low physical activity, low sunlight exposure, heavy smoking, as well as chronic low-grade inflammation. Bone metabolism studies show increased bone formation as well as bone resorption in chronic pancreatitis, indicating that bone turnover is abnormally high. Loss of the pancreatic islet cells occurs later in the disease process as the endocrine cells are diffusely distributed throughout the pancreatic parenchyma. Patients may develop type 3c (pancreatogenic) diabetes, which is complicated by concurrent decreased glucagon secretion, and hence an increased risk of hypoglycaemia. Diabetes control is further complicated by poor diet, malabsorption and (for some) alcoholism, and therefore those with type 3c diabetes have clinical characteristics and therapeutic goals that are different from that of type 1 and type 2 diabetes patients. This review describes emerging research and clinical guidelines for nutrition in chronic pancreatitis.

Complications of Chronic Pancreatitis

Chronic pancreatitis is a disease that leads to irreversible changes in the pancreatic morphology and function. The loss of function can lead to diabetes mellitus and exocrine pancreatic insufficiency. The inflammation and fibrosis can also lead to other complications including a chronic abdominal pain syndrome, metabolic bone disease, and pancretic cancer. This article reviews our current understanding of the mechanisms and management of these complications of chronic pancreatitis.

Surgery for intractable pain in a patient with chronic pancreatitis complicated with biliary obstruction, portal vein stenosis and mesenteric venous collaterals

Pancreatic head resection for chronic pancreatitis is a challenging procedure, in the presence of venous collaterals, cavernous transformation, extensive fibrosis or porto-mesenteric stenosis or thrombosis. We present a surgically treated patient for the intractable pain of chronic pancreatitis. Complications with biliary obstruction and portal vein stenosis/thrombosis resulted in cavernous transformation. A pancreaticoduodenectomy combined with portal vein resection was intended in a 51 year-old male, but the procedure was terminated due to the high risk associated with intraoperative bleeding. The surgical procedure was switched to a Frey procedure, wherein partial pancreatic head resection, drainage of the pancreatic canal and sufficient pain palliation, without an increased risk of intraoperative hemorrhage, was ensured. The procedure was successfully combined with bilio-enteric anastomosis.