Double-wavelength technique for surface plasmon resonance measurements: basic concept and applications for single sensors and two-dimensional sensor arrays

Surface plasmon coupling between wide-field SPR microscopy and gold nanoparticles

The coupling behavior of the wide field surface plasmon microscopy (WF-SPRM) with single-, two-, and multiple-gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with different AuNPs sizes is investigated using theoretical, simulation, and experimental approaches. The signal intensity of a single AuNP increases from 208 a.u. to 583 a.u. as particle size increases from 40 to 80 nm, which evidences the signal-building mechanism of Rayleigh scattering theory. A discrete particle model of SPR is used to understand the interaction between an Au-layer and a single AuNP. The calculated intensity profile of the single AuNP from the discrete particle model is accepted with the experimental data. In addition, the superposition between 2-AuNPs surface plasmon waves is studied using the finite element method as well as experimental data from WF-SPRM. The surface plasmon waves around the two particles generate an interference pattern. Finally, it is demonstrated that plasmonic multiple particles scattering can be represented by an effective media, which is described by Maxwell-Garnet equations.

Intensity Interrogation-Based High-Sensitivity Surface Plasmon Resonance Imaging Biosensor for Apoptosis Detection in Cancer

Intensity interrogation-based surface plasmon resonance imaging (ISPRi) sensing has a simple schematic design and is the most widely used surface plasmon resonance technology at present. In this study, we report the successful development of a novel high-sensitivity ISPRi biosensor and its application for apoptosis detection in cancer cells. By optimizing the excitation wavelength and excitation angle, we achieved a refractive index resolution (RIR) of 5.20 × 10-6 RIU. Importantly, the biosensor has been tested and validated for high-throughput and label-free detection of activated caspase-3 with its specific inhibitor Z-DEVD-FMK in apoptotic cells. Therefore, this study describes a novel molecular imaging system to monitor apoptosis in cancers for disease diagnosis and/or evaluation of therapeutic efficacy of anti-cancer drugs.

Surface plasmon excitation on a grating assisted by a cholesteric liquid crystal layer

While surface plasmon excitation assisted by nematic liquid crystal layers has been comprehensively studied in different aspects, application of cholesteric structures for surface plasmon excitation remains an unexplored area. Moreover, structures including cholesteric layers and metal grating for surface plasmon excitation have never been considered, to the best of our knowledge. We studied theoretically and experimentally such structures focusing on different regimes of propagation of normal modes in the cholesteric liquid crystal layer. The application of such structures for sensing is accordingly discussed.

High-Sensitive Surface Plasmon Resonance Imaging Biosensor Based on Dual-Wavelength Differential Method

Intensity interrogation surface plasmon resonance (ISPR) sensing has a simple schematic design and is the most widely used surface plasmon resonance technology at present. However, it has relatively low sensitivity, especially for ISPR imaging (ISPRi). In this paper, a new technique for the real-time monitoring of biomolecule binding on sensor surfaces via ISPRi detection is described. The technique is based on the interrogation of the differential value of two intensities at two specific wavelengths from the reflected light spectrum. In addition, we also optimized the selection of dual-wavelength parameters under different circumstances to achieve the highest sensitivity. The new technique achieved a refractive index resolution (RIR) of 2.24 × 10^–6 RIU, which is far beyond that of traditional ISPRi technique. Moreover, our new ISPRi technique also realized the real-time detection of high-throughput biomolecular binding. This study is expected to promote the development of faster and more accurate SPRi technologies.

Surface Plasmon Resonance Optical Sensor: A Review on Light Source Technology

The notion of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensor research emerged more than eight decades ago from the first observed phenomena in 1902 until the first introduced principles for gas sensing and biosensing in 1983. The sensing platform has been hand-in-hand with the plethora of sensing technology advancement including nanostructuring, optical technology, fluidic technology, and light source technology, which contribute to substantial progress in SPR sensor evolution. Nevertheless, the commercial products of SPR sensors in the market still require high-cost investment, component, and operation, leading to unaffordability for their implementation in a low-cost point of care (PoC) or laboratories. In this article, we present a comprehensive review of SPR sensor development including the state of the art from a perspective of light source technology trends. Based on our review, the trend of SPR sensor configurations, as well as its methodology and optical designs are strongly influenced by the development of light source technology as a critical component. These simultaneously offer new underlying principles of SPR sensor towards miniaturization, portability, and disposability features. The low-cost solid-state light source technology, such as laser diode, light-emitting diode (LED), organic light emitting diode (OLED) and smartphone display have been reported as proof of concept for the future of low-cost SPR sensor platforms. Finally, this review provides a comprehensive overview, particularly for SPR sensor designers, including emerging engineers or experts in this field.

Exploring Molecular-Biomembrane Interactions with Surface Plasmon Resonance and Dual Polarization Interferometry Technology: Expanding the Spotlight onto Biomembrane Structure

The molecular analysis of biomolecular-membrane interactions is central to understanding most cellular systems but has emerged as a complex technical challenge given the complexities of membrane structure and composition across all living cells. We present a review of the application of surface plasmon resonance and dual polarization interferometry-based biosensors to the study of biomembrane-based systems using both planar mono- or bilayers or liposomes. We first describe the optical principals and instrumentation of surface plasmon resonance, including both linear and extraordinary transmission modes and dual polarization interferometry. We then describe the wide range of model membrane systems that have been developed for deposition on the chips surfaces that include planar, polymer cushioned, tethered bilayers, and liposomes. This is followed by a description of the different chemical immobilization or physisorption techniques. The application of this broad range of engineered membrane surfaces to biomolecular-membrane interactions is then overviewed and how the information obtained using these techniques enhance our molecular understanding of membrane-mediated peptide and protein function. We first discuss experiments where SPR alone has been used to characterize membrane binding and describe how these studies yielded novel insight into the molecular events associated with membrane interactions and how they provided a significant impetus to more recent studies that focus on coincident membrane structure changes during binding of peptides and proteins. We then discuss the emerging limitations of not monitoring the effects on membrane structure and how SPR data can be combined with DPI to provide significant new information on how a membrane responds to the binding of peptides and proteins.

Detection of Intermolecular Interactions Based on Surface Plasmon Resonance Registration

Methods for registration of intermolecular interactions based on the phenomenon of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) have become one of the most efficient tools to solve fundamental and applied problems of analytical biochemistry. Nevertheless, capabilities of these methods are often insufficient to detect low concentrations of analytes or to screen large numbers of objects. That is why considerable efforts are directed at enhancing the sensitivity and efficiency of SPR-based measurements. This review describes the basic principles of the detection of intermolecular interactions using this method, provides a comparison of various types of SPR detectors, and classifies modern approaches to enhance sensitivity and efficiency of measurements.

Surface plasmon resonance based biosensor technique: a review

Optical Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensors represent the most advanced and developed optical label-free biosensor technology. Optical SPR biosensors are a powerful detection and analysis tool that has vast applications in environmental protection, biotechnology, medical diagnostics, drug screening, food safety and security. This article reviews the recent development of SPR biosensor techniques, including bulk SPR and localized SPR (LSPR) biosensors, for detecting interactions between an analyte of interest in solution and a biomolecular recognition. The concepts of bulk and localized SPs and the working principles of both sensing techniques are introduced. Major sensing advances on biorecognition elements, measurement formats, and sensing platforms are presented. Finally, the discussions on both biosensor techniques as well as comparison of both SPR sensing techniques are made.

Resolution enhancement in surface plasmon resonance sensor based on waveguide coupled mode by combining a bimetallic approach

In this study, we present and demonstrate a new route to a great enhancement in resolution of surface plasmon resonance sensors. Basically, our approach combines a waveguide coupled plasmonic mode and a kind of Au/Ag bimetallic enhancement concept. Theoretical modeling was carried out by solving Fresnel equations for the multilayer stack of prism/Ag inner-metal layer/dielectric waveguide/Au outer-metal layer. The inner Ag layer couples incident light to a guided wave and makes more fields effectively concentrated on the outer Au surface. A substantial enhancement in resolution was experimentally verified for the model stack using a ZnS-SiO₂ waveguide layer.

A Brief Introduction to the Streptavidin-Biotin System and its Usage in Modern Surface Based Assays

This review presents the molecular basis of the high affinity between (strept)avidin and biotin as it was discovered from different protein crystal structures using wild type and mutant streptavidin. Optimization strategies for further improving the applicability of the (strept)avidin-biotin system and prospects for modulating the affinity are discussed. The characterization and the application of the streptavidin-biotin system in surface-based biosensing assays are demonstrated with selected examples focussing on surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Recent trends to further enhance the utility of convential SPR e.g. parallel detection of biological molecules and sensitivity enhancement towards small molecules are covered as well.

Optical biosensors based on photonic crystal surface waves

Optical biosensors have played a key role in the selective recognition of target biomolecules and in biomolecular interaction analysis, providing kinetic data about biological binding events in real time without labeling. The advantages of the label-free concept are the elimination of detrimental effects from labels that may interfere with fundamental interaction and the absence of a time-consuming pretreatment. The disadvantages of all label-free techniques--including the most mature one, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technique, are a deficient sensitivity to a specific signal and undesirable susceptibilities to non-specific signals, e.g., to the volume effect of refraction index variations. These variations arise from temperature fluctuations and drifts and they are the limiting factor for many state-of-the-art optical biosensors. Here we describe a new optical biosensor technique based on the registration of dual optical s-polarized waves on a photonic crystal surface. The simultaneous registration of two different optical modes from the same surface spot permits the segregation of the volume and the surface signals, while the absence of metal damping permits an increase in the propagation length of the optical surface waves and the sensitivity of the biosensor. The technique was tested with the binding of biotin molecules to a streptavidin monolayer that has been detected with a signal/noise ratio of about 15 at 1 s signal accumulation time. The detection limit is about 20 fg of the analyte on the probed spot of the surface.

Sensitive optical biosensors for unlabeled targets: A review

This article reviews the recent progress in optical biosensors that use the label-free detection protocol, in which biomolecules are unlabeled or unmodified, and are detected in their natural forms. In particular, it will focus on the optical biosensors that utilize the refractive index change as the sensing transduction signal. Various optical label-free biosensing platforms will be introduced, including, but not limited to, surface plasmon resonance, interferometers, waveguides, fiber gratings, ring resonators, and photonic crystals. Emphasis will be given to the description of optical structures and their respective sensing mechanisms. Examples of detecting various types of biomolecules will be presented. Wherever possible, the sensing performance of each optical structure will be evaluated and compared in terms of sensitivity and detection limit.

Noise reduction by multiple referencing in surface plasmon resonance imaging

The analytical performance of surface plasmon resonance imaging with charge coupled device detection can be improved significantly by splitting a macroscopic sensing surface into multiple microscopic neighboring sensing and referencing subareas. It is shown that such a multiple referencing reduces intensity fluctuations across the total sensing area and, therefore, improves the signal/noise (S/N) ratio proportional to the splitting factor. The approach is demonstrated by detection of biotin binding to a monolayer of streptavidin. An effective variation of the reflected intensity of about 10(-4), which corresponds to the refraction index variation of 3x10(-6), was detected with a S/N ratio about 10 without any temperature stabilization of the sensing area.

Photonic crystal surface waves for optical biosensors

We present a new optical biosensor technique based on registration of dual optical s-polarized modes on a photonic crystal surface. The simultaneous registration of two optical surface waves with different evanescent depths from the same surface spot permits the segregation of the volume and the surface contributions from an analyte, while the absence of metal damping permits an increase in the propagation length of the optical surface waves and the sensitivity of the biosensor. Our technique was tested with the binding of biotin molecules to a streptavidin monolayer that has been detected with signal/noise ratio of approximately 15 at 1-s signal accumulation time. The detection limit is approximately 20 fg of the analyte on the probed spot of the surface.

Surface plasmon resonance biosensor for enrofloxacin based on deoxyribonucleic acid

A DNA-based surface plasmon resonance biosensor for enrofloxacin was developed. Heating denatured DNA immobilized on the gold-coated glass surface was exploited. The immobilization was performed by a layer-by-layer co-deposition with a cationic polymer. The sensor performance was tested with real biological probes. Direct and simple determination of enrofloxacin in milk samples was demonstrated. The sensor response obeys Langmuir binding isotherm being almost linear until about 20 microg mL(-1). The detection limit in milk samples was estimated to be 3 microg mL(-1).

Electrochemical Surface Plasmon Resonance Spectroscopy at Bilayered Silver/Gold Films

Bilayered silver/gold films (gold deposited on top of the silver film) were used as substrates for electrochemical surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy (EC-SPR). EC-SPR responses of electrochemical deposition/stripping of copper and redox-induced conformation changes of cytochrome c immobilized onto self-assembled monolayers preformed at these substrates were measured. Influence of the Ag layer thickness and the double-layer capacitance on the EC-SPR behavior was investigated. The results demonstrated that the bilayered Ag/Au metal films produce a sharper SPR dip profile than pure Au films and retain the high chemical stability of Au films. Contrary to the result by the Fresnel calculation that predicts a greater fraction of Ag in the bilayered film should result in a greater signal-to-noise ratio, the EC-SPR sensitivity is dependent on both the Ag/Au thickness ratio and the chemical modification of the surface. Factors affecting the overall SPR sensitivity at the bilayered films, such as the film morphology, potential-induced excess surface charges, and the adsorbate layer were investigated. Forming a compact adsorbate layer at the bilayered film diminishes the effect of potential-induce excess surface charges on the SPR signal and improves the overall EC-SPR sensitivity. For the case of redox-induced conformation changes of cytochrome c, the SPR signal obtained at the bilayered silver/gold film is 2.7 times as high as that at a pure gold film.

Label-free reading of microarray-based proteins with high throughput surface plasmon resonance imaging

A simple method is presented discriminating proteins at a gold surface by using an emerging technology, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) imaging. As a high throughput method, the protein array of bovine serum albumin (BSA), poly-l-lysine (PL), casein and lactate dehydrogenase (LDG) was fabricated and SPR imaging enables detection from different kinds of proteins immobilized on the sensor surface. These proteins can be discriminated directly by various reflected intensity or changing the incident angular position of light. Denaturation of these immobilized proteins on SPR sensor by interacting with denaturant 6M GdnHCl solution was also performed and obvious changes in reflected intensity were occurred after denaturation. The observation of denaturation of these proteins further supported the fact that different proteins could be discriminated on protein array before denaturation. On the other hand, the procedure of denaturation provided useful information that any change of molecular structure with the progress of denaturation would result in change of SPR signal. Excellent reproducibility with a chip-to-chip for label-free discriminating various proteins was achieved.

Differential Surface Plasmon Resonance Imaging for High-Throughput Bioanalyses

A new imaging technique for high-throughput surface plasmon resonance (SPR) measurements is described. It is the application of a CCD camera for simultaneous processing of two images at two different wavelengths provided by two laser diodes. The two lasers are brought to resonance by tuning of the angle of incidence so that the detection power and the dynamic range are optimized for the wavelength pair selected. Applying a special differential processing of the two images, SPR measurements can be performed near the shot noise limit taking into account the number of CCD pixels involved. It is shown that the detection limit of imaging methods can be improved significantly if the working point is set near to the reflection minimum instead of choosing the angle with the steepest slope of the reflection curve. The technique is demonstrated by simultaneous measurement of hybridization reactions of three different types of thiolated oligonucleotides in 30 small areas set by a commercial spotter. A noise level of 1.5 x 10(-6) refractive index units (RIU) was obtained for single, 500 x 500 microm2 reaction areas. The noise level was about 6 x 10(-7) RIU when five areas were taken into account. The present arrangement and the particular spotter applied would allow simultaneous measurements of up to 400 binding reactions with a noise level of about 1.5 x 10(-6) RIU.

Formation and removal of alkylthiolate self-assembled monolayers on gold in aqueous solutions

We report the development of novel reagents and approaches for generating recyclable biosensors. The use of aqueous media for the formation of protein binding alkylthiolate monolayers on Au surfaces results in accelerated alkylthiolate monolayer formation and improvement in monolayer integrity as visualized by fluorescence microscopy and CV techniques. We have also developed an electrocleaning protocol that is compatible with microfluidics devices, and this technique serves as an on-chip method for cleaning Au substrates both before and after monolayer formation. The techniques for the formation and dissociation of biotinylated SAMs from aqueous solvents reported here may be applied towards the development of Au-based sensor devices and microfluidics chips in the future. A potential use of these devices includes the specific capture and triggered release of target cells, proteins, or small molecules from liquid samples.

Electrocatalytic activity of DNA on electrodes as an indication of hybridisation

Electron transfer between metal electrodes and ferro/ferricyanide is completely suppressed at low ionic concentration. We describe here a new phenomenon related to this reaction: an immobilisation of thiolated single-stranded DNA on gold electrodes retains this activity at low ionic strength up to the level corresponding to the high ionic strength. In contrast, a hybridisation of the complementary DNA with the thiolated single-stranded DNA followed by a binding onto the electrodes, attenuated the electrocatalytic effect. These effects can be used for discrimination between single-stranded DNA and double-stranded DNA and for semi-quantitative measurement of complementary DNA in a sample.

Light-Driven Water Splitting for (Bio-)Hydrogen Production: Photosystem 2 as the Central Part of a Bioelectrochemical Device

To establish a semiartificial device for (bio-)hydrogen production utilizing photosynthetic water oxidation, we report on the immobilization of a Photosystem 2 on electrode surfaces. For this purpose, an isolated Photosystem 2 with a genetically introduced His tag from the cyanobacterium Thermosynechococcus elongatus was attached onto gold electrodes modified with thiolates bearing terminal Ni(II)-nitrilotriacetic acid groups. Surface enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy showed the binding kinetics of Photosystem 2, whereas surface plasmon resonance measurements allowed the amount of protein adsorbed to be quantified. On the basis of these data, the surface coverage was calculated to be 0.29 pmol protein cm(-2), which is in agreement with the formation of a monomolecular film on the electrode surface. Upon illumination, the generation of a photocurrent was observed with current densities of up to 14 microA cm(-2) . This photocurrent is clearly dependent on light quality showing an action spectrum similar to an isolated Photosystem 2. The achieved current densities are equivalent to the highest reported oxygen evolution activities in solution under comparable conditions.