1
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Wu Y, Deng Y, Tan G, You J. Persistent acyclic Cp*Ir(III) complexes and their reactivities in cross-coupling reactions. Nat Commun 2025; 16:4499. [PMID: 40368984 PMCID: PMC12078468 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-025-59817-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2025] [Accepted: 05/06/2025] [Indexed: 05/16/2025] Open
Abstract
Iridium(III) complexes play a prominent role in organometallic chemistry, with significant research efforts directed toward Cp*Ir(III) species, broadly categorized into cyclic and acyclic types. Although studies on these two classes began roughly simultaneously, the development of acyclic Cp*Ir(III) complexes has lagged significantly behind their cyclic counterparts. Herein, we report a general and efficient strategy for synthesizing various persistent aryl Cp*Ir(III)(CO)Cl complexes directly from aryl aldehydes, with in situ generated CO as a stabilizing ligand. These acyclic Cp*Ir(III) complexes showcase exceptional reactivity, undergoing reactions with up to eight classes of nucleophiles to generate diverse diorganoiridium(III) species with remarkable stability. Electrochemical analysis of these complexes provides insights into their reductive elimination processes. Guided by these findings, Cp*Ir(III)-mediated decarbonylative C-C and C-O cross-couplings of aryl aldehydes are successfully developed. This study establishes a robust platform for the exploration of acyclic Cp*Ir(III) complexes, paving the way for further advancements in iridium(III) chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yimin Wu
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Technology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610064, People's Republic of China
| | - Yayin Deng
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Technology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610064, People's Republic of China
| | - Guangying Tan
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Technology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610064, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jingsong You
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Technology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610064, People's Republic of China.
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2
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Tâmega GS, Costa MO, de Araujo Pereira A, Barbosa Ferreira MA. Data Science Guiding Analysis of Organic Reaction Mechanism and Prediction. CHEM REC 2024; 24:e202400148. [PMID: 39499081 DOI: 10.1002/tcr.202400148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2024] [Revised: 09/09/2024] [Indexed: 11/07/2024]
Abstract
Advancements in synthetic organic chemistry are closely related to understanding substrate and catalyst reactivities through detailed mechanistic studies. Traditional mechanistic investigations are labor-intensive and rely on experimental kinetic, thermodynamic, and spectroscopic data. Linear free energy relationships (LFERs), exemplified by Hammett relationships, have long facilitated reactivity prediction despite their inherent limitations when using experimental constants or incorporating comprehensive experimental data. Data-driven modeling, which integrates cheminformatics with machine learning, offers powerful tools for predicting and interpreting mechanisms and effectively handling complex reactivities through multiparameter strategies. This review explores selected examples of data-driven strategies for investigating organic reaction mechanisms. It highlights the evolution and application of computational descriptors for mechanistic inference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Scalli Tâmega
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of São Carlos, 13565-905, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Mateus Oliveira Costa
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of São Carlos, 13565-905, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Ariel de Araujo Pereira
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of São Carlos, 13565-905, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
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3
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Varenikov A, Gandelman M, Sigman MS. Development of Modular Nitrenium Bipolar Electrolytes for Possible Applications in Symmetric Redox Flow Batteries. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:19474-19488. [PMID: 38963077 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.4c05799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
Amid the escalating integration of renewable energy sources, the demand for grid energy storage solutions, including non-aqueous organic redox flow batteries (oRFBs), has become ever more pronounced. oRFBs face a primary challenge of irreversible capacity loss attributed to the crossover of redox-active materials between half-cells. A possible solution for the crossover challenge involves utilization of bipolar electrolytes that act as both the catholyte and anolyte. Identifying such molecules poses several challenges as it requires a delicate balance between the stability of both oxidation states and energy density, which is influenced by the separation between the two redox events. We report the development of a diaminotriazolium redox-active core capable of producing two electronically distinct persistent radical species with typically extreme reduction potentials (E1/2red < -2 V, E1/2ox > +1 V, vs Fc0/+) and up to 3.55 V separation between the two redox events. Structure-property optimization studies allowed us to identify factors responsible for fine-tuning of potentials for both redox events, as well as separation between them. Mechanistic studies revealed two primary decomposition pathways for the neutral radical charged species and one for the radical biscation. Additionally, statistical modeling provided evidence for the molecular descriptors to allow identification of the structural features responsible for stability of radical species and to propose more stable analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrii Varenikov
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Mark Gandelman
- Schulich Faculty of Chemistry, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Technion City, Haifa 3200008, Israel
| | - Matthew S Sigman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
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4
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Alzaidi O, Wirth T. Continuous Flow Electroselenocyclization of Allylamides and Unsaturated Oximes to Selenofunctionalized Oxazolines and Isoxazolines. ACS ORGANIC & INORGANIC AU 2024; 4:350-355. [PMID: 38855333 PMCID: PMC11157512 DOI: 10.1021/acsorginorgau.4c00008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
The synthesis of selenofunctionalized oxazolines and isoxazolines from N-allyl benzamides and unsaturated oximes with diselenides was studied by utilizing a continuous flow electrochemical approach. At mild reaction conditions and short reaction times of 10 min product yields of up to 90% were achieved including a scale-up reaction. A broad substrate scope was studied and the reaction was shown to have a wide functional group tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ohud Alzaidi
- School
of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Park Place, Main Building, Cardiff CF10 3AT, U.K.
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Science –
Al Khurma, Taif University, P.O. Box
11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
| | - Thomas Wirth
- School
of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Park Place, Main Building, Cardiff CF10 3AT, U.K.
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5
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Yu J, Liu T, Sun W, Zhang Y. Electrochemical Decarboxylative Elimination of Carboxylic Acids to Alkenes. Org Lett 2023; 25:7816-7821. [PMID: 37870311 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.3c02997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
An electrochemical strategy for the decarboxylative elimination of carboxylic acids to alkenes at room temperature has been developed. This mild and oxidant-free method provides a green alternative to traditional thermal decarboxylation reactions. Structurally diverse aliphatic carboxylic acids, including biologically active drugs, underwent smooth conversion to the corresponding alkenes in good to excellent yields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiage Yu
- College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P. R. China
| | - Teng Liu
- College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P. R. China
| | - Wanhao Sun
- College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100871, P. R. China
| | - Yunfei Zhang
- College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P. R. China
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6
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Mtemeri L, Hickey DP. Model-Driven Design of Redox Mediators: Quantifying the Impact of Quinone Structure on Bioelectrocatalytic Activity with Glucose Oxidase. J Phys Chem B 2023; 127:7685-7693. [PMID: 37594905 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.3c03740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/20/2023]
Abstract
Successful application of emerging bioelectrocatalysis technologies depends upon an efficient electrochemical interaction between redox enzymes as biocatalysts and conductive electrode surfaces. One approach to establishing such enzyme-electrode interfaces utilizes small redox-active molecules to act as electron mediators between an enzyme-active site and the electrode surface. While redox mediators have been successfully used in bioelectrocatalysis applications ranging from enzymatic electrosynthesis to enzymatic biofuel cells, they are often selected using a guess-and-check approach. Herein, we identify structure-function relationships in redox mediators that describe the bimolecular rate constant for its reaction with a model enzyme, glucose oxidase (GOx). Based on a library of quinone-based redox mediators, a quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) model is developed to describe the importance of mediator redox potential and projected molecular area as two key parameters for predicting the activity of quinone/GOx-based electroenzymatic systems. Additionally, rapid scan stopped-flow spectrophotometry was used to provide fundamental insights into the kinetics and the stoichiometry of reactions between different quinones and the flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD+/FADH2) cofactor of GOx. This work provides a critical foundation for both designing new enzyme-electrode interfaces and understanding the role that quinone structure plays in altering electron flux in electroenzymatic reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lincoln Mtemeri
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Materials Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - David P Hickey
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Materials Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
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7
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Reid JP, Betinol IO, Kuang Y. Mechanism to model: a physical organic chemistry approach to reaction prediction. Chem Commun (Camb) 2023; 59:10711-10721. [PMID: 37552047 DOI: 10.1039/d3cc03229a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/09/2023]
Abstract
The application of mechanistic generalizations is at the core of chemical reaction development and application. These strategies are rooted in physical organic chemistry where mechanistic understandings can be derived from one reaction and applied to explain another. Over time these techniques have evolved from rationalizing observed outcomes to leading experimental design through reaction prediction. In parallel, significant progression in asymmetric organocatalysis has expanded the reach of chiral transfer to new reactions with increased efficiency. However, the complex and diverse catalyst structures applied in this arena have rendered the generalization of asymmetric catalytic processes to be exceptionally challenging. Recognizing this, a portion of our research has been focused on understanding the transferability of chemical observations between similar reactions and exploiting this phenomenon as a platform for prediction. Through these experiences, we have relied on a working knowledge of reaction mechanism to guide the development and application of our models which have been advanced from simple qualitative rules to large statistical models for quantitative predictions. In this feature article, we describe the models acquired to generalize organocatalytic reaction mechanisms and demonstrate their use as a powerful approach for accelerating enantioselective synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolene P Reid
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z1, Canada.
| | - Isaiah O Betinol
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z1, Canada.
| | - Yutao Kuang
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z1, Canada.
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8
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Walser-Kuntz R, Yan Y, Sigman M, Sanford MS. A Physical Organic Chemistry Approach to Developing Cyclopropenium-Based Energy Storage Materials for Redox Flow Batteries. Acc Chem Res 2023; 56:1239-1250. [PMID: 37094181 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.3c00095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2023]
Abstract
ConspectusRedox flow batteries (RFBs) represent a promising modality for electrical energy storage. In these systems, energy is stored via paired redox reactions of molecules on opposite sides of an electrochemical cell. Thus, a central objective for the field is to design molecules with the optimal combination of properties to serve as energy storage materials in RFBs. The ideal molecules should undergo reversible redox reactions at relatively high potentials (for the molecule that is oxidized during battery charging, called the catholyte) or low potentials (for the species that is reduced during battery charging, called the anolyte). Furthermore, anolytes and catholytes must be highly soluble in the electrolyte solution and stable to extended electrochemical cycling in all battery-relevant redox states. The ideal candidates would undergo more than one reversible electron transfer event. Finally, the optimal structures should be resistant to crossover through a selective separator in order to maintain isolation of the two sides of the cell. This Account describes our design and optimization of organic molecules for this application. We first provide background for the metrics and experiments used to characterize anolytes/catholytes and to progress them toward deployment in flow batteries. We then use our studies of aminocyclopropenium-based catholytes to illustrate this workflow and approach.We identified tris(dimethylamino) cyclopropenium hexafluorophosphate as a first-generation catholyte for nonaqueous RFBs based on literature reports from the 1970s describing its reversible chemical and electrochemical oxidation. Cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical cycling experiments in acetonitrile/LiPF6 confirmed that this molecule undergoes oxidation at relatively high potential (0.86 V versus ferrocene/ferrocenium) and exhibits moderate stability toward charge-discharge cycling. Replacing the methyl groups with isopropyl substituents led to enhanced cycling stability but poor solubility of the radical dication (<0.1 M in acetonitrile). Solubility was optimized using quantitative structure-property relationship modeling, which predicted derivatives with ≥10-fold enhanced solubility. Cyclopropeniums with 300-500 mV higher redox potentials were identified by replacing one of the dialkylamino substituents with a less electron-donating thioalkyl or aryl group. Multielectron catholytes were developed by creating hybrid structures that contain a di(amino) cyclopropenium conjugated with a phenothiazine moeity. Finally, oligomeric tris(amino) cyclopropeniums were designed as crossover resistant catholytes. Optimization of their solubility enabled the deployment of these oligomers in high concentration asymmetric redox flow batteries with energy densities that are comparable to the state-of-the-art commercial aqueous inorganic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Walser-Kuntz
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 North University Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR), 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Yichao Yan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 North University Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR), 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - MatthewS Sigman
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR), 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Melanie S Sanford
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 North University Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR), 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
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9
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Lustosa DM, Milo A. Mechanistic Inference from Statistical Models at Different Data-Size Regimes. ACS Catal 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.2c01741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Danilo M. Lustosa
- Department of Chemistry, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Anat Milo
- Department of Chemistry, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 84105, Israel
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10
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Yang L, Zhu L, Zhang S, Hong X. Machine Learning Prediction of
Structure‐Performance
Relationship in Organic Synthesis. CHINESE J CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/cjoc.202200039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Li‐Cheng Yang
- Center of Chemistry for Frontier Technologies, Department of Chemistry, State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University Hangzhou Zhejiang 310027 China
| | - Lu‐Jing Zhu
- Center of Chemistry for Frontier Technologies, Department of Chemistry, State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University Hangzhou Zhejiang 310027 China
| | - Shuo‐Qing Zhang
- Center of Chemistry for Frontier Technologies, Department of Chemistry, State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University Hangzhou Zhejiang 310027 China
| | - Xin Hong
- Center of Chemistry for Frontier Technologies, Department of Chemistry, State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University Hangzhou Zhejiang 310027 China
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Zhongguancun North First Street NO. 2 Beijing 100190 China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Synthesis of Functional Molecules of Zhejiang Province, School of Science, Westlake University, 18 Shilongshan Road Hangzhou Zhejiang 310024 China
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11
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Tang T, Friede NC, Minteer SD, Sigman MS. Comparing Halogen Atom Abstraction Kinetics for Mn(I), Fe(I), Co(I), and Ni(I) Complexes by Combining Electroanalytical and Statistical Modeling. European J Org Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.202200064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Shelley D. Minteer
- The University of Utah Department of Chemistry 315 S 1400 E Room 2020 84112 Salt Lake City UNITED STATES
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12
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Tay NES, Lehnherr D, Rovis T. Photons or Electrons? A Critical Comparison of Electrochemistry and Photoredox Catalysis for Organic Synthesis. Chem Rev 2022; 122:2487-2649. [PMID: 34751568 PMCID: PMC10021920 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Redox processes are at the heart of synthetic methods that rely on either electrochemistry or photoredox catalysis, but how do electrochemistry and photoredox catalysis compare? Both approaches provide access to high energy intermediates (e.g., radicals) that enable bond formations not constrained by the rules of ionic or 2 electron (e) mechanisms. Instead, they enable 1e mechanisms capable of bypassing electronic or steric limitations and protecting group requirements, thus enabling synthetic chemists to disconnect molecules in new and different ways. However, while providing access to similar intermediates, electrochemistry and photoredox catalysis differ in several physical chemistry principles. Understanding those differences can be key to designing new transformations and forging new bond disconnections. This review aims to highlight these differences and similarities between electrochemistry and photoredox catalysis by comparing their underlying physical chemistry principles and describing their impact on electrochemical and photochemical methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas E. S. Tay
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, New York, 10027, United States
| | - Dan Lehnherr
- Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Tomislav Rovis
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, New York, 10027, United States
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13
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Betinol IO, Kuang Y, Reid JP. Guiding Target Synthesis with Statistical Modeling Tools: A Case Study in Organocatalysis. Org Lett 2022; 24:1429-1433. [PMID: 35030005 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.1c04134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Practitioners are generally not willing to explore modern reactions where considerable synthetic effort is required to generate materials and the results are not certain. Organocatalysis exemplifies this, in which a broad set of enantioselective reactions have been successfully developed but further applications to include additional substrates are often not performed. Herein we demonstrate how statistical models can be utilized to accurately distinguish between different catalysts and reactions to guide the selection of efficient synthetic routes to obtain a target molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaiah O Betinol
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Yutao Kuang
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Jolene P Reid
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
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14
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De Jesus Silva J, Bartalucci N, Jelier B, Grosslight S, Gensch T, Schünemann C, Müller B, Kamer PCJ, Copéret C, Sigman MS, Togni A. Development and Molecular Understanding of a Pd‐Catalyzed Cyanation of Aryl Boronic Acids Enabled by High‐Throughput Experimentation and Data Analysis. Helv Chim Acta 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/hlca.202100200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jordan De Jesus Silva
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences ETH Zürich Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1–5 CH-8093 Zürich Switzerland
| | - Niccolò Bartalucci
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences ETH Zürich Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1–5 CH-8093 Zürich Switzerland
| | - Benson Jelier
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences ETH Zürich Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1–5 CH-8093 Zürich Switzerland
| | - Samantha Grosslight
- Department of Chemistry University of Utah 315 South 1400 East Salt Lake City Utah 84112 United States
| | - Tobias Gensch
- Department of Chemistry University of Utah 315 South 1400 East Salt Lake City Utah 84112 United States
- Department of Chemistry TU Berlin Straße des 17. Juni 135 DE-10623 Berlin Germany
| | - Claas Schünemann
- Leibniz-Institute for Catalysis e. V. Albert-Einstein-Straße 29a DE-18059 Rostock Germany
| | - Bernd Müller
- Leibniz-Institute for Catalysis e. V. Albert-Einstein-Straße 29a DE-18059 Rostock Germany
| | - Paul C. J. Kamer
- Leibniz-Institute for Catalysis e. V. Albert-Einstein-Straße 29a DE-18059 Rostock Germany
| | - Christophe Copéret
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences ETH Zürich Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1–5 CH-8093 Zürich Switzerland
| | - Matthew S. Sigman
- Department of Chemistry University of Utah 315 South 1400 East Salt Lake City Utah 84112 United States
| | - Antonio Togni
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences ETH Zürich Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1–5 CH-8093 Zürich Switzerland
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15
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Lu H, Kang X, Luo Y. Structure-Based Relative Energy Prediction Model: A Case Study of Pd(II)-Catalyzed Ethylene Polymerization and the Electronic Effect of Ancillary Ligands. J Phys Chem B 2021; 125:12047-12053. [PMID: 34694809 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.1c05143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Rapidly mapping a reaction energy profile to understand the reaction mechanism is of great importance and highly desired for the discovery of new chemical reactions. Herein, a combination of density functional theory (DFT) calculations and regression analysis has been applied to construct quantitative structures-based energy prediction models, considering Pd(II)-catalyzed ethylene polymerization as an example, for rapid construction of the reaction energy profile. It is inspiring that only geometrical parameters of the reaction center of one species are capable of predicting the whole energy profile with high accuracy. The reaction energies of ethylene insertion and β-H elimination, which directly correlate with polymerization activity and the possibility of branch formation, were studied to elucidate the electronic effects of ancillary ligands. Further analyses of these models from the statistical and chemical points of view afforded useful information on the design of the catalyst ligand. The current work is expected to methodologically shed new light on rapidly mapping the energy profile of chemical reactions and further provide useful information for the development of the reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, School of Chemical Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Xiaohui Kang
- College of Pharmacy, Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116044, China
| | - Yi Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, School of Chemical Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China.,PetroChina Petrochemical Research Institute, Beijing 102206, China
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16
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Shoja A, Zhai J, Reid JP. Comprehensive Stereochemical Models for Selectivity Prediction in Diverse Chiral Phosphate-Catalyzed Reaction Space. ACS Catal 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.1c03520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Shoja
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Jianyu Zhai
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Jolene P. Reid
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
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17
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Kim K, Peleckis G, Wagner K, Mozer AJ. Multisample Correlation Reveals the Origin of the Photocurrent of an Unstable Cu 2O Photocathode during CO 2 Reduction. J Phys Chem Lett 2021; 12:8157-8163. [PMID: 34410734 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.1c02280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The reliable characterization of the photoelectrochemical (PEC) performance of unstable photoelectrodes, often the simplest devices used as a baseline, is a huge challenge. By performing a correlation analysis of more than 100 parameters of Cu2O photocathodes electrodeposited under the same conditions, we discovered a strong positive correlation (R = 0.866) between the photocurrent in argon and the deposition current peak magnitude during electrodeposition, while a strong negative correlation (R = -0.787) was found in CO2. In argon, a positive correlation between the photocurrent during PEC tests and the post-PEC dark current suggests the dominance of photodegradation. In CO2, the higher photocurrent in PEC tests correlates well with the lower post-PEC dark current, revealing the dominance of photocatalytic CO2 reduction during the rapid PEC tests. Correlation analysis provides statistically robust insights into the operation of unstable electrodes based on routinely measured parameters and thus constitutes a simple yet previously unexplored methodology for characterizing photoelectrodes within the first minutes of operation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyuman Kim
- Intelligent Polymer Research Institute and ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales 2522, Australia
| | - Germanas Peleckis
- Australian Institute for Innovative Materials, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales 2500, Australia
| | - Klaudia Wagner
- Intelligent Polymer Research Institute and ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales 2522, Australia
| | - Attila J Mozer
- Intelligent Polymer Research Institute and ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales 2522, Australia
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18
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Collado A, Nelson DJ, Nolan SP. Optimizing Catalyst and Reaction Conditions in Gold(I) Catalysis-Ligand Development. Chem Rev 2021; 121:8559-8612. [PMID: 34259505 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c01320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
This review considers phosphine and N-heterocyclic carbene complexes of gold(I) that are used as (pre)catalysts for a range of reactions in organic synthesis. These are divided according to the structure of the ligand, with the narrative focusing on studies that offer a quantitative comparison between the ligands and readily available or widely used existing systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alba Collado
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C/Francisco Tomás y Valiente, 7, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - David J Nelson
- WestCHEM Department of Pure & Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 295 Cathedral Street, Glasgow G1 1XL, Scotland
| | - Steven P Nolan
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Sustainable Chemistry, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281 - S3, 9000 Gent, Belgium
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19
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Gao W, Li B, Zong L, Yu L, Li X, Li Q, Zhang X, Zhang S, Xu K. Electrochemical Tandem Cyclization of Unsaturated Oximes with Diselenides: A General Approach to Seleno Isoxazolines Derivatives with Quaternary Carbon Center. European J Org Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.202100294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Wenchao Gao
- Engineering Technology Research Center of Henan Province for Photo- and Electrochemical Catalysis College of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Engineering Nanyang Normal University Nanyang, Henan 473061 China
| | - Beibei Li
- Engineering Technology Research Center of Henan Province for Photo- and Electrochemical Catalysis College of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Engineering Nanyang Normal University Nanyang, Henan 473061 China
| | - Luyi Zong
- Engineering Technology Research Center of Henan Province for Photo- and Electrochemical Catalysis College of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Engineering Nanyang Normal University Nanyang, Henan 473061 China
| | - Lintao Yu
- Engineering Technology Research Center of Henan Province for Photo- and Electrochemical Catalysis College of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Engineering Nanyang Normal University Nanyang, Henan 473061 China
| | - Xuyang Li
- Engineering Technology Research Center of Henan Province for Photo- and Electrochemical Catalysis College of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Engineering Nanyang Normal University Nanyang, Henan 473061 China
| | - Qiyang Li
- Engineering Technology Research Center of Henan Province for Photo- and Electrochemical Catalysis College of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Engineering Nanyang Normal University Nanyang, Henan 473061 China
| | - Xu Zhang
- Engineering Technology Research Center of Henan Province for Photo- and Electrochemical Catalysis College of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Engineering Nanyang Normal University Nanyang, Henan 473061 China
| | - Sheng Zhang
- Engineering Technology Research Center of Henan Province for Photo- and Electrochemical Catalysis College of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Engineering Nanyang Normal University Nanyang, Henan 473061 China
| | - Kun Xu
- Engineering Technology Research Center of Henan Province for Photo- and Electrochemical Catalysis College of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Engineering Nanyang Normal University Nanyang, Henan 473061 China
- College of Life Science & Bioengineering Beijing University of Technology Beijing 100124 China
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20
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Shoja A, Reid JP. Computational Insights into Privileged Stereocontrolling Interactions Involving Chiral Phosphates and Iminium Intermediates. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:7209-7215. [PMID: 33914528 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c03829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The precise design of a catalyst for a given reaction is extremely difficult, often requiring a significant empirical screening campaign to afford products in high yields and enantiomeric excess. Design becomes even more challenging if one requires a catalyst that performs well for a diverse range of substrates. Such "privileged" catalysts exist, but little is known why they operate so generally. We report the results of computations which show that when substrate and catalyst features are conserved between significantly different mechanistic regimes, similar modes of activation can be invoked. As a validating case study, we explored a Hantzsch ester hydrogenation of α,β-unsaturated iminiums involving BINOL-derived chiral phosphates and find they impart asymmetric induction in an analogous fashion to their acid counterpart. Specifically, DFT calculations at the IEFPCM(1,4-dioxane)-B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p)//B3LYP/6-31G(d) level predicted enantioselectivity to be close to the experimental value (82% ee calculated, 96% ee experimental) and showed that the reaction proceeds via a transition state involving two hydrogen-bonding interactions from the iminium intermediate and nucleophile to the catalyst. These interactions lower the energy of the transition structure and provide extra rigidity to the system. This new model invokes "privileged" noncovalent interactions and leads to a new explanation for the enantioselectivity outcome, ultimately providing the basis for the development of general catalyst design principles and the translation of mechanistically disparate reaction profiles for the prediction of enantioselectivity outcomes using statistical models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Shoja
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Jolene P Reid
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
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21
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Loewen ND, Pattanayak S, Herber R, Fettinger JC, Berben LA. Quantification of the Electrostatic Effect on Redox Potential by Positive Charges in a Catalyst Microenvironment. J Phys Chem Lett 2021; 12:3066-3073. [PMID: 33750139 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.1c00406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Charged functional groups in the secondary coordination sphere (SCS) of a heterogeneous nanoparticle or homogeneous electrocatalyst are of growing interest due to enhancements in reactivity that derive from specific interactions that stabilize substrate binding or charged intermediates. At the same time, accurate benchmarking of electrocatalyst systems most often depends on the development of linear free-energy scaling relationships. However, the thermodynamic axis in those kinetic-thermodynamic correlations is most often obtained by a direct electrochemical measurement of the catalyst redox potential and might be influenced by electrostatic effects of a charged SCS. In this report, we systematically probe positive charges in a SCS and their electrostatic contributions to the electrocatalyst redox potential. A series of 11 iron carbonyl clusters modified with charged and uncharged ligands was probed, and a linear correlation between the νCO absorption band energy and electrochemical redox potentials is observed except where the SCS is positively charged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia D Loewen
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Santanu Pattanayak
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Rolfe Herber
- Racah Institute of Physics, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Givat Ram, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - James C Fettinger
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Louise A Berben
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, United States
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22
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Chen Y, Tian B, Cheng Z, Li X, Huang M, Sun Y, Liu S, Cheng X, Li S, Ding M. Electro-Descriptors for the Performance Prediction of Electro-Organic Synthesis. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:4199-4207. [PMID: 33180375 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202014072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Electrochemical organic synthesis has attracted increasing attentions as a sustainable and versatile synthetic platform. Quantitative assessment of the electro-organic reactions, including reaction thermodynamics, electro-kinetics, and coupled chemical processes, can lead to effective analytical tool to guide their future design. Herein, we demonstrate that electrochemical parameters such as onset potential, Tafel slope, and effective voltage can be utilized as electro-descriptors for the evaluation of reaction conditions and prediction of reactivities (yields). An "electro-descriptor-diagram" is generated, where reactive and non-reactive conditions/substances show distinct boundary. Successful predictions of reaction outcomes have been demonstrated using electro-descriptor diagram, or from machine learning algorithms with experimentally-derived electro-descriptors. This method represents a promising tool for data-acquisition, reaction prediction, mechanistic investigation, and high-throughput screening for general organic electro-synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuxuan Chen
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Bailin Tian
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Zheng Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China.,Institute of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Xiaoshan Li
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Min Huang
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Yuxia Sun
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Shuai Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Organic Materials, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Xu Cheng
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Organic Materials, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Shuhua Li
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China.,Institute of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Mengning Ding
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
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23
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Chen Y, Tian B, Cheng Z, Li X, Huang M, Sun Y, Liu S, Cheng X, Li S, Ding M. Electro‐Descriptors for the Performance Prediction of Electro‐Organic Synthesis. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202014072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuxuan Chen
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing 210023 China
| | - Bailin Tian
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing 210023 China
| | - Zheng Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing 210023 China
- Institute of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing 210023 China
| | - Xiaoshan Li
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing 210023 China
| | - Min Huang
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing 210023 China
| | - Yuxia Sun
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing 210023 China
| | - Shuai Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Organic Materials School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing 210023 China
| | - Xu Cheng
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Organic Materials School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing 210023 China
| | - Shuhua Li
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing 210023 China
- Institute of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing 210023 China
| | - Mengning Ding
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing 210023 China
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24
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OKADA Y. Redox-Neutral Radical-Cation Reactions: Multiple Carbon–Carbon Bond Formations Enabled by Single-Electron Transfer. ELECTROCHEMISTRY 2020. [DOI: 10.5796/electrochemistry.20-00088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yohei OKADA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology
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25
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Rhodes Z, Cabrera‐Pardo JR, Li M, Minteer SD. Electrochemical Advances in Non‐Aqueous Redox Flow Batteries. Isr J Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ijch.202000049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zayn Rhodes
- Department of Chemistry University of Utah 315 South 1400 East Salt Lake City UT, 84112 U.S.A
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research Department of Energy U.S.A
| | - Jaime R. Cabrera‐Pardo
- Department of Chemistry University of Utah 315 South 1400 East Salt Lake City UT, 84112 U.S.A
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research Department of Energy U.S.A
| | - Min Li
- Department of Chemistry University of Utah 315 South 1400 East Salt Lake City UT, 84112 U.S.A
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research Department of Energy U.S.A
| | - Shelley D. Minteer
- Department of Chemistry University of Utah 315 South 1400 East Salt Lake City UT, 84112 U.S.A
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research Department of Energy U.S.A
- Department of Chemistry University of Utah 315 South 1400 East Salt Lake City UT 84112 U.S.A
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26
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Liu J, Lu L, Wood D, Lin S. New Redox Strategies in Organic Synthesis by Means of Electrochemistry and Photochemistry. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2020; 6:1317-1340. [PMID: 32875074 PMCID: PMC7453421 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.0c00549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 212] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
As the breadth of radical chemistry grows, new means to promote and regulate single-electron redox activities play increasingly important roles in driving modern synthetic innovation. In this regard, photochemistry and electrochemistry-both considered as niche fields for decades-have seen an explosive renewal of interest in recent years and gradually have become a cornerstone of organic chemistry. In this Outlook article, we examine the current state-of-the-art in the areas of electrochemistry and photochemistry, as well as the nascent area of electrophotochemistry. These techniques employ external stimuli to activate organic molecules and imbue privileged control of reaction progress and selectivity that is challenging to traditional chemical methods. Thus, they provide alternative entries to known and new reactive intermediates and enable distinct synthetic strategies that were previously unimaginable. Of the many hallmarks, electro- and photochemistry are often classified as "green" technologies, promoting organic reactions under mild conditions without the necessity for potent and wasteful oxidants and reductants. This Outlook reviews the most recent growth of these fields with special emphasis on conceptual advances that have given rise to enhanced accessibility to the tools of the modern chemical trade.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Song Lin
- Department of Chemistry and
Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New
York 14853, United States
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27
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Li X, Zhang S, Xu L, Hong X. Predicting Regioselectivity in Radical C−H Functionalization of Heterocycles through Machine Learning. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202000959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Li
- Department of Chemistry Zhejiang University 38 Zheda Road Hangzhou 310027 China
| | - Shuo‐Qing Zhang
- Department of Chemistry Zhejiang University 38 Zheda Road Hangzhou 310027 China
| | - Li‐Cheng Xu
- Department of Chemistry Zhejiang University 38 Zheda Road Hangzhou 310027 China
| | - Xin Hong
- Department of Chemistry Zhejiang University 38 Zheda Road Hangzhou 310027 China
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28
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Li X, Zhang S, Xu L, Hong X. Predicting Regioselectivity in Radical C−H Functionalization of Heterocycles through Machine Learning. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:13253-13259. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.202000959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2020] [Revised: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Li
- Department of Chemistry Zhejiang University 38 Zheda Road Hangzhou 310027 China
| | - Shuo‐Qing Zhang
- Department of Chemistry Zhejiang University 38 Zheda Road Hangzhou 310027 China
| | - Li‐Cheng Xu
- Department of Chemistry Zhejiang University 38 Zheda Road Hangzhou 310027 China
| | - Xin Hong
- Department of Chemistry Zhejiang University 38 Zheda Road Hangzhou 310027 China
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