Protein Sequence Selection Method That Enables Full Consensus Design of Artificial l-Threonine 3-Dehydrogenases with Unique Enzymatic Properties

Design of ancestral mammalian alkaline phosphatase bearing high stability and productivity

Mammalian alkaline phosphatase (AP) is widely used in diagnostics and molecular biology but its widespread use is impaired because it is difficult to express in Escherichia coli and has low thermostability. To overcome these challenges, we employed sequence-based protein redesign methods, specifically full consensus design (FCD) and ancestral sequence reconstruction (ASR), to create APs with enhanced properties. Biochemical analyses revealed that these newly designed APs exhibited improved levels of expression in their active form and increased thermostability compared to bovine intestinal AP isozyme II (bIAPII), without impeding enzymatic activity. Notably, the activity in culture broth of the designed APs was an order of magnitude higher than that of bIAPII, and their thermal stability increased by 13°C-17°C (measured as T50). We also assessed 28 single-point mutants of bIAPII to identify regions influencing thermostability and expression level; these mutations were common in the engineered APs but not in bIAPII. Specific mutations, such as T413E and G402S, enhanced thermostability, whereas increasing the expression level required multiple mutations. This suggests that a synergistic effect is required to enhance the expression level. Mutations enhancing thermostability were located in the crown domain, while those improving expression were close to the dimer interface, indicating distinct mechanisms underpinning these enhancements.

IMPORTANCE

Sequence-based protein redesign methods, such as full consensus design (FCD) and ancestral sequence reconstruction (ASR), have the potential to construct new enzymes utilizing protein sequence data registered in a rapidly expanding sequence database. The high thermostability of these enzymes would expand their application in diagnostics and molecular biology. These enzymes have also demonstrated a high level of active expression by Escherichia coli. These characteristics make these APs attractive candidates for industrial application. In addition, different amino acid residues are primarily responsible for thermal stability and active expression, suggesting important implications for strategies for designing enzymes by FCD and ASR.

Efficient and easible biocatalysts: Strategies for enzyme improvement. A review

Owing to the environmental friendliness and vast advantages that enzymes offer in the biotechnology and industry fields, biocatalysts are a prolific investigation field. However, the low catalytic activity, stability, and specific selectivity of the enzyme limit the range of the reaction enzymes involved in. A comprehensive understanding of the protein structure and dynamics in terms of molecular details enables us to tackle these limitations effectively and enhance the catalytic activity by enzyme engineering or modifying the supports and solvents. Along with different strategies including computational, enzyme engineering based on DNA recombination, enzyme immobilization, additives, chemical modification, and physicochemical modification approaches can be promising for the wide spread of industrial enzyme usage. This is attributed to the successful application of biocatalysts in industrial and synthetic processes requires a system that exhibits stability, activity, and reusability in a continuous flow process, thereby reducing the production cost. The main goal of this review is to display relevant approaches for improving enzyme characteristics to overcome their industrial application.

Fishing for Catalysis: Experimental Approaches to Narrowing Search Space in Directed Evolution of Enzymes

Directed evolution has transformed protein engineering offering a path to rapid improvement of protein properties. Yet, in practice it is limited by the hyper-astronomic protein sequence search space, and approaches to identify mutagenic hot spots, i.e., locations where mutations are most likely to have a productive impact, are needed. In this perspective, we categorize and discuss recent progress in the experimental approaches (broadly defined as structural, bioinformatic, and dynamic) to hot spot identification. Recent successes in harnessing protein dynamics and machine learning approaches provide new opportunities for the field and will undoubtedly help directed evolution reach its full potential.

Structural and functional analysis of hyper-thermostable ancestral L-amino acid oxidase that can convert Trp derivatives to D-forms by chemoenzymatic reaction

Production of D-amino acids (D-AAs) on a large-scale enables to provide precursors of peptide therapeutics. In this study, we designed a novel L-amino acid oxidase, HTAncLAAO2, by ancestral sequence reconstruction, exhibiting high thermostability and long-term stability. The crystal structure of HTAncLAAO2 was determined at 2.2 Å by X-ray crystallography, revealing that the enzyme has an octameric form like a "ninja-star" feature. Enzymatic property analysis demonstrated that HTAncLAAO2 exhibits three-order larger kcat/Km values towards four L-AAs (L-Phe, L-Leu, L-Met, and L-Ile) than that of L-Trp. Through screening the variants, we obtained the HTAncLAAO2(W220A) variant, which shows a > 6-fold increase in kcat value toward L-Trp compared to the original enzyme. This variant applies to synthesizing enantio-pure D-Trp derivatives from L- or rac-forms at a preparative scale. Given its excellent properties, HTAncLAAO2 would be a starting point for designing novel oxidases with high activity toward various amines and AAs.

Architectural digest: Thermodynamic stability and domain structure of a consensus monomeric globin

Artificial proteins representing the consensus of a set of homologous sequences have attracted attention for their increased thermodynamic stability and conserved activity. Here, we applied the consensus approach to a b-type heme-binding protein to inspect the contribution of a dissociable cofactor to enhanced stability and the chemical consequences of creating a generic heme environment. We targeted the group 1 truncated hemoglobin (TrHb1) subfamily of proteins for their small size (∼120 residues) and ease of characterization. The primary structure, derived from a curated set of ∼300 representative sequences, yielded a highly soluble consensus globin (cGlbN) enriched in acidic residues. Optical and NMR spectroscopies revealed high-affinity heme binding in the expected site and in two orientations. At neutral pH, proximal and distal iron coordination was achieved with a pair of histidine residues, as observed in some natural TrHb1s, and with labile ligation on the distal side. As opposed to studied TrHb1s, which undergo additional folding upon heme binding, cGlbN displayed the same extent of secondary structure whether the heme was associated with the protein or not. Denaturation required guanidine hydrochloride and showed that apo- and holoprotein unfolded in two transitions-the first (occurring with a midpoint of ∼2 M) was shifted to higher denaturant concentration in the holoprotein (∼3.7 M) and reflected stabilization due to heme binding, while the second transition (∼6.2 M) was common to both forms. Thus, the consensus sequence stabilized the protein but exposed the existence of two separately cooperative subdomains within the globin architecture, masked as one single domain in TrHb1s with typical stabilities. The results suggested ways in which specific chemical or thermodynamic features may be controlled in artificial heme proteins.

Towards de novo design of transmembrane α-helical assemblies using structural modelling and molecular dynamics simulation

Computational de novo protein design involves iterative processes consisting of amino acid sequence design, structural modelling and scoring, and design validation by synthesis and experimental characterisation. Recent advances in protein structure prediction and modelling methods have enabled the highly efficient and accurate design of water-soluble proteins. However, the design of membrane proteins remains a major challenge. To advance membrane protein design, considering the higher complexity of membrane protein folding, stability, and dynamic interactions between water, ions, lipids, and proteins is an important task. For introducing explicit solvents and membranes to these design methods, all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of designed proteins provide useful information that cannot be obtained experimentally. In this review, we first describe two major approaches to designing transmembrane α-helical assemblies, consensus and de novo design. We further illustrate recent MD studies of membrane protein folding related to protein design, as well as advanced treatments in molecular models and conformational sampling techniques in the simulations. Finally, we discuss the possibility to introduce MD simulations after the existing static modelling and screening of design decoys as an additional step for refinement of the design, which considers membrane protein folding dynamics and interactions with explicit membranes.

Enzymatic Conjugation of Modified RNA Fragments by Ancestral RNA Ligase AncT4_2

Oligonucleotide therapeutics have great potential as a next-generation approach to treating intractable diseases. Large quantities of modified DNA/RNA containing xenobiotic nucleic acids (XNAs) must be synthesized before clinical application. In this study, the ancestral RNA ligase AncT4_2 was designed by ancestral sequence reconstruction (ASR) to perform the conjugation reaction of modified RNA fragments. AncT4_2 had superior properties to native RNA ligase 2 from T4 phage (T4Rnl2), including high productivity, a >2.5-fold-higher turnover number, and >10°C higher thermostability. One remarkable point is the broad substrate selectivity of AncT4_2; the activity of AncT4_2 toward 17 of the modified RNA fragments was higher than that of T4Rnl2. The activity was estimated by measuring the conjugation reaction of two RNA strands, 3'-OH (12 bp) and 5'-PO4 (12 bp), in which the terminal and penultimate positions of the 3'-OH fragment and the first and second positions of the 5'-PO4 fragment were substituted by 2'-fluoro, 2'-O-methyl, 2'-O-methoxyethyl, and 2'-H, respectively. The enzymatic properties of AncT4_2 allowed the enzyme to conjugate large quantities of double-stranded RNA coding for patisiran (>400 μM level), which was formed by four RNA fragments containing 2'-OMe-substituted nucleic acids. Structural analysis of modeled AncT4_2 suggested that protein dynamics were changed by mutation to Gly or indel during ASR and that this may positively impact the conjugation of modified RNA fragments with the enzyme. AncT4_2 is expected to be a key biocatalyst in synthesizing RNA therapeutics by an enzymatic reaction. IMPORTANCE RNA therapeutics is one of the next-generation medicines for treating various diseases. Our designed ancestral RNA ligase AncT4_2 exhibited excellent enzymatic properties, such as high thermal stability, productivity, specific activity, and broad substrate selectivity compared to native enzymes. These advantages create the potential for AncT4_2 to be applied in conjugating the modified RNA fragments containing various xenobiotic nucleic acids. In addition, patisiran, a known polyneuropathy therapeutic, could be synthesized from four fragmented oligonucleotides at a preparative scale. Taken together, these findings indicate AncT4_2 could open the door to synthesizing RNA therapeutics by enzymatic reaction at large-scale production.

Design of a Full-Consensus Glutamate Decarboxylase and Its Application to GABA Biosynthesis

Glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) catalyses the decarboxylation of L-glutamate to gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Improvement of the enzymatic properties of GAD is important for the low-cost synthesis of GABA. In this study, utilizing sequences of enzymes homologous with GAD from lactic acid bacteria, highly mutated GADs were designed using sequence-based protein design methods. Two mutated GADs, FcGAD and AncGAD, generated by full-consensus design and ancestral sequence reconstruction, had more desirable properties than native GADs. With respect to thermal stability, the half-life of the designed GADs was about 10 °C higher than that of native GAD. The productivity of FcGAD was considerably higher than those of known GADs; more than 250 mg/L of purified enzyme could be produced in the E. coli expression system. In a production test using 26.4 g of l-glutamate and 3.0 g of resting cells, 17.2 g of GABA could be prepared within one hour, without purification, in a one-pot synthesis.

Catalytic mechanism of ancestral L-lysine oxidase assigned by sequence data mining

A large number of protein sequences are registered in public databases such as PubMed. Functionally uncharacterized enzymes are included in these databases, some of which likely have potential for industrial applications. However, assignment of the enzymes remained difficult tasks for now. In this study, we assigned a total of 28 original sequences to uncharacterized enzymes in the FAD-dependent oxidase family expressed in some species of bacteria including Chryseobacterium, Flavobacterium, and Pedobactor. Progenitor sequence of the assigned 28 sequences was generated by ancestral sequence reconstruction, and the generated sequence exhibited L-lysine oxidase activity; thus, we named the enzyme AncLLysO. Crystal structures of ligand-free and ligand-bound forms of AncLLysO were determined, indicating that the enzyme recognizes L-Lys by hydrogen bond formation with R76 and E383. The binding of L-Lys to AncLLysO induced dynamic structural change at a plug loop formed by residues 251 to 254. Biochemical assays of AncLLysO variants revealed the functional importance of these substrate recognition residues and the plug loop. R76A and E383D variants were also observed to lose their activity, and the kcat/Km value of G251P and Y253A mutations were approximately 800- to 1800-fold lower than that of AncLLysO, despite the indirect interaction of the substrates with the mutated residues. Taken together, our data demonstrate that combinational approaches to sequence classification from database and ancestral sequence reconstruction may be effective not only to find new enzymes using databases of unknown sequences but also to elucidate their functions.

Partial Consensus Design and Enhancement of Protein Function by Secondary-Structure-Guided Consensus Mutations

Consensus design (CD) is a representative sequence-based protein design method that enables the design of highly functional proteins by analyzing vast amounts of protein sequence data. This study proposes a partial consensus design (PCD) of a protein as a derivative approach of CD. The method replaces the target protein sequence with a consensus sequence in a secondary-structure-dependent manner (i.e., regionally dependent and divided into α-helix, β-sheet, and loop regions). In this study, we generated several artificial partial consensus l-threonine 3-dehydrogenases (PcTDHs) by PCD using the TDH from Cupriavidus necator (CnTDH) as a target protein. Structural and functional analysis of PcTDHs suggested that thermostability would be independently improved when consensus mutations are introduced into the loop region of TDHs. On the other hand, enzyme kinetic parameters (k_cat/K_m) and average productivity would be synergistically enhanced by changing the combination of the mutations-replacement of one region of CnTDH with a consensus sequence provided only negative effects, but the negative effects were nullified when the two regions were replaced simultaneously. Taken together, we propose the hypothesis that there are protein regions that encode individual protein properties, such as thermostability and activity, and that the introduction of consensus mutations into these regions could additively or synergistically modify their functions.