On the Track of Long-Range Electron Transfer in B-Type Dye-Decolorizing Peroxidases: Identification of a Tyrosyl Radical by Computational Prediction and Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Molecular basis of H2O2/O2.-/.OH discrimination during electrochemical activation of DyP peroxidases: The critical role of the distal residues

Here, we show that the replacement of the distal residues Asp and/or Arg of the DyP peroxidases from Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas putida results in functional enzymes, albeit with spectroscopically perturbed active sites. All the enzymes can be activated either by the addition of exogenous H2O2 or by in situ electrochemical generation of the reactive oxygen species (ROS) •OH, O2•- and H2O2. The latter method leads to broader and upshifted pH-activity profiles. Both WT enzymes exhibit a differential predominance of ROS involved in their electrochemical activation, which follows the order •OH > O2•- > H2O2 for BsDyP and O2•- > H2O2 > •OH for PpDyP. This ROS selectivity is preserved in mutants with unperturbed sites but is blurred out for distorted sites. The underlying molecular basis of the selectivity mechanisms is analysed through molecular dynamics simulations, which reveal distorted hydrogen bonding networks and higher throughput of the access tunnels in the variants exhibiting no selectivity. The electrochemical activation method provides superior performance for protein variants with a high prevalence of the alternative •OH and O2•- species. These results constitute a promising advance towards engineering DyPs for electrocatalytic applications.

Insights into heme degradation and hydrogen peroxide-induced dimerization of human neuroglobin

In this present study, we investigated the H2O2-induced oligomerization of wild-type human neuroglobin (hNgb) and of some selected variants (C46AC55A, Y44A, Y44F, Y44AC46AC55A, Y44AC46AC55A) to clarify how the process is affected by the Cys46/Cys55 disulfide bond and the distal H-bonding network and to figure out the molecular determinants of the H2O2-induced formation of amyloid-type structures and hNgb aggregates. It turns out that hydrogen peroxide exerts a two-fold effect on hNgb, inducing both heme breakdown and protein dimerization/polymerization. The enhanced resistance to the oxidizing effect of H2O2 of the disulfide-free variants indicates that both effects are strictly influenced by the heme accessibility for H2O2. Most importantly, the H2O2-induced neuroglobin dimerization/polymerization turns out to be triggered by tyrosyl radicals resulting from the oxidizing action of Compound I ([Por•Fe(IV) = O]+). Peptide mapping indicates that the H2O2-induced dimerization/polymerization of hNgb mainly involves Tyr44, which forms covalent bonds with all the other tyrosine residues, with a minor contribution from Tyr88. The presented findings contribute further important pieces of information in the quest of identifying all capabilities of hNgb and ultimately its physiological task.

Engineering A-type Dye-Decolorizing Peroxidases by Modification of a Conserved Glutamate Residue

Dye-decolorizing peroxidases (DyPs) are recently identified microbial enzymes that have been used in several Biotechnology applications from wastewater treatment to lignin valorization. However, their properties and mechanism of action still have many open questions. Their heme-containing active site is buried by three conserved flexible loops with a putative role in modulating substrate access and enzyme catalysis. Here, we investigated the role of a conserved glutamate residue in stabilizing interactions in loop 2 of A-type DyPs. First, we did site saturation mutagenesis of this residue, replacing it with all possible amino acids in bacterial DyPs from Bacillus subtilis (BsDyP) and from Kitasatospora aureofaciens (KaDyP1), the latter being characterized here for the first time. We screened the resulting libraries of variants for activity towards ABTS and identified variants with increased catalytic efficiency. The selected variants were purified and characterized for activity and stability. We furthermore used Molecular Dynamics simulations to rationalize the increased catalytic efficiency and found that the main reason is the electron channeling becoming easier from surface-exposed tryptophans. Based on our findings, we also propose that this glutamate could work as a pH switch in the wild-type enzyme, preventing intracellular damage.

Dye-decolorizing peroxidase of Thermobifida halotolerance displays complex kinetics with both substrate inhibition and apparent positive cooperativity

Dye-decolorizing peroxidases (DyPs) have been intensively investigated for the purpose of industrial dye decolourization and lignin degradation. Unfortunately, the characterization of these peroxidases is hampered by their non-Michaelis-Menten kinetics, exemplified by substrate inhibition and/or positive cooperativity. Although often observed, the underlying mechanisms behind the unusual kinetics of DyPs are poorly understood. Here we studied the kinetics of the oxidation of 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), hydroquinones, and anthraquinone dyes by DyP from the bacterium Thermobifida halotolerans (ThDyP) and solved its crystal structure. We also provide rate equations for different kinetic mechanisms explaining the complex kinetics of heme peroxidases. Kinetic studies along with the analysis of the structure of ThDyP suggest that the substrate inhibition is caused by the non-productive binding of ABTS to the enzyme resting state. Strong irreversible inactivation of ThDyP by H2O2 in the absence of ABTS suggests that the substrate inhibition by H2O2 may be caused by the non-productive binding of H2O2 to compound I. Positive cooperativity was observed only with the oxidation of ABTS but not with the two electron-donating substrates. Although the conventional mechanism of cooperativity cannot be excluded, we propose that the oxidation of ABTS assumes the simultaneous binding of two ABTS molecules to reduce compound I to the enzyme resting state, and this causes the apparent positive cooperativity.

Dye-Decolorizing Peroxidase of Streptomyces coelicolor (ScDyPB) Exists as a Dynamic Mixture of Kinetically Different Oligomers

Dye-decolorizing peroxidases (DyPs) are heme-dependent enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of various substrates including environmental pollutants such as azo dyes and also lignin. DyPs often display complex non-Michaelis-Menten kinetics with substrate inhibition or positive cooperativity. Here, we performed in-depth kinetic characterization of the DyP of the bacterium Streptomyces coelicolor (ScDyPB). The activity of ScDyPB was found to be dependent on its concentration in the working stock used to initiate the reactions as well as on the pH of the working stock. Furthermore, the above-listed conditions had different effects on the oxidation of 2,2'-azino-di(3-ethyl-benzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) and methylhydroquinone, suggesting that different mechanisms are used in the oxidation of these substrates. The kinetics of the oxidation of ABTS were best described by the model whereby ScDyPB exists as a mixture of two kinetically different enzyme forms. Both forms obey the ping-pong kinetic mechanism, but one form is substrate-inhibited by the ABTS, whereas the other is not. Gel filtration chromatography and dynamic light scattering analyses revealed that ScDyPB exists as a complex mixture of molecules with different sizes. We propose that ScDyPB populations with low and high degrees of oligomerization have different kinetic properties. Such enzyme oligomerization-dependent modulation of the kinetic properties adds further dimension to the complexity of the kinetics of DyPs but also suggests novel possibilities for the regulation of their catalytic activity.

New insights into controlling radical migration pathways in heme enzymes gained from the study of a dye-decolorising peroxidase

In heme enzymes, such as members of the dye-decolorising peroxidase (DyP) family, the formation of the highly oxidising catalytic Fe(iv)-oxo intermediates following reaction with hydrogen peroxide can lead to free radical migration (hole hopping) from the heme to form cationic tyrosine and/or tryptophan radicals. These species are highly oxidising (∼1 V vs. NHE) and under certain circumstances can catalyse the oxidation of organic substrates. Factors that govern which specific tyrosine or tryptophan the free radical migrates to in heme enzymes are not well understood, although in the case of tyrosyl radical formation the nearby proximity of a proton acceptor is a recognised facilitating factor. By using an A-type member of the DyP family (DtpAa) as an exemplar, we combine protein engineering, X-ray crystallography, hole-hopping calculations, EPR spectroscopy and kinetic modelling to provide compelling new insights into the control of radical migration pathways following reaction of the heme with hydrogen peroxide. We demonstrate that the presence of a tryptophan/tyrosine dyad motif displaying a T-shaped orientation of aromatic rings on the proximal side of the heme dominates the radical migration landscape in wild-type DtpAa and continues to do so following the rational engineering into DtpAa of a previously identified radical migration pathway in an A-type homolog on the distal side of the heme. Only on disrupting the proximal dyad, through removal of an oxygen atom, does the radical migration pathway then switch to the engineered distal pathway to form the desired tyrosyl radical. Implications for protein design and biocatalysis are discussed.

Electrochemical Actuation of a DyP Peroxidase: A Facile Method for Drastic Improvement of the Catalytic Performance

Dye decolorizing peroxidases (DyP) have attracted interest for applications such as dye-containing wastewater remediation and biomass processing. So far, efforts to improve operational pH ranges, activities, and stabilities have focused on site-directed mutagenesis and directed evolution strategies. Here, we show that the performance of the DyP from Bacillus subtilis can be drastically boosted without the need for complex molecular biology procedures by simply activating the enzyme electrochemically in the absence of externally added H2O2. Under these conditions, the enzyme shows specific activities toward a variety of chemically different substrates that are significantly higher than in its canonical operation. Moreover, it presents much broader pH activity profiles with the maxima shifted toward neutral to alkaline. We also show that the enzyme can be successfully immobilized on biocompatible electrodes. When actuated electrochemically, the enzymatic electrodes have two orders of magnitude higher turnover numbers than with the standard H2O2-dependent operation and preserve about 30% of the initial electrocatalytic activity after 5 days of operation-storage cycles.

Biocatalysis for biorefineries: The case of dye-decolorizing peroxidases

Dye-decolorizing Peroxidases (DyPs) are heme-containing enzymes in fungi and bacteria that catalyze the reduction of hydrogen peroxide to water with concomitant oxidation of various substrates, including anthraquinone dyes, lignin-related phenolic and non-phenolic compounds, and metal ions. Investigation of DyPs has shed new light on peroxidases, one of the most extensively studied families of oxidoreductases; still, details of their microbial physiological role and catalytic mechanisms remain to be fully disclosed. They display a distinctive ferredoxin-like fold encompassing anti-parallel β-sheets and α-helices, and long conserved loops surround the heme pocket with a role in catalysis and stability. A tunnel routes H₂O₂ to the heme pocket, whereas binding sites for the reducing substrates are in cavities near the heme or close to distal aromatic residues at the surface. Variations in reactions, the role of catalytic residues, and mechanisms were observed among different classes of DyP. They were hypothetically related to the presence or absence of distal H₂O molecules in the heme pocket. The engineering of DyPs for improved properties directed their biotechnological applications, primarily centered on treating textile effluents and degradation of other hazardous pollutants, to fields such as biosensors and valorization of lignin, the most abundant renewable aromatic polymer. In this review, we track recent research contributions that furthered our understanding of the activity, stability, and structural properties of DyPs and their biotechnological applications. Overall, the study of DyP-type peroxidases has significant implications for environmental sustainability and the development of new bio-based products and materials with improved end-of-life options via biodegradation and chemical recyclability, fostering the transition to a sustainable bio-based industry in the circular economy realm.

Lignin peroxidase-catalyzed direct oxidation of trace organic pollutants through a long-range electron transfer mechanism: Using propranolol as an example

In this work, lignin peroxidase (LiP) was extracted for the in vitro degradation of a persistent compound (propranolol, PPN). The results showed that 94.2% of PPN was degraded at 30 U L^-1 LiP activity and 10 mg L^-1 PPN. The PPN degradation rate increased from 33.5% to 94.2% when the veratryl alcohol (VA) concentration varied from 0 to 180 µM, but decreased to 73.1% with further VA addition. This phenomenon confirmed that VA was indispensable, however, it also acted as a competitive inhibitor of PPN oxidation. Computational analysis revealed that the Trp171…iron porphyrin (TRP-FeP) path was responsible for specific substrate (e.g., VA) transformation, and another long-range electron transfer (LRET) path through His-Asp…FeP (HSP-FeP) was discovered for non-specific substrate (e.g., PPN) degradation. These two electron-transfer routes shared one catalytic center, and VA protected the enzyme from H₂O₂-dependent inactivation. The HSP-FeP path transformed PPN through single electron transfer or H abstraction mechanisms. In addition, hydroxyl radicals generated in the LiP/H₂O₂ system were involved in the hydroxylation of the PPN intermediates. Possible degradation pathways were deduced using these degradation mechanisms and mass-spectrometry analysis. The multipath degradation mechanism endowed LiP with a remarkable capacity for removing various recalcitrant pollutants in environmental remediation.

Functional and protective hole hopping in metalloenzymes

Electrons can tunnel through proteins in microseconds with a modest release of free energy over distances in the 15 to 20 Å range. To span greater distances, or to move faster, multiple charge transfers (hops) are required. When one of the reactants is a strong oxidant, it is convenient to consider the movement of a positively charged "hole" in a direction opposite to that of the electron. Hole hopping along chains of tryptophan (Trp) and tyrosine (Tyr) residues is a critical function in several metalloenzymes that generate high-potential intermediates by reactions with O2 or H2O2, or by activation with visible light. Examination of the protein structural database revealed that Tyr/Trp chains are common protein structural elements, particularly among enzymes that react with O2 and H2O2. In many cases these chains may serve a protective role in metalloenzymes by deactivating high-potential reactive intermediates formed in uncoupled catalytic turnover.

Loops around the Heme Pocket Have a Critical Role in the Function and Stability of BsDyP from Bacillus subtilis

Bacillus subtilis BsDyP belongs to class I of the dye-decolorizing peroxidase (DyP) family of enzymes and is an interesting biocatalyst due to its high redox potential, broad substrate spectrum and thermostability. This work reports the optimization of BsDyP using directed evolution for improved oxidation of 2,6-dimethoxyphenol, a model lignin-derived phenolic. After three rounds of evolution, one variant was identified displaying 7-fold higher catalytic rates and higher production yields as compared to the wild-type enzyme. The analysis of X-ray structures of the wild type and the evolved variant showed that the heme pocket is delimited by three long conserved loop regions and a small α helix where, incidentally, the mutations were inserted in the course of evolution. One loop in the proximal side of the heme pocket becomes more flexible in the evolved variant and the size of the active site cavity is increased, as well as the width of its mouth, resulting in an enhanced exposure of the heme to solvent. These conformational changes have a positive functional role in facilitating electron transfer from the substrate to the enzyme. However, they concomitantly resulted in decreasing the enzyme’s overall stability by 2 kcal mol⁻¹, indicating a trade-off between functionality and stability. Furthermore, the evolved variant exhibited slightly reduced thermal stability compared to the wild type. The obtained data indicate that understanding the role of loops close to the heme pocket in the catalysis and stability of DyPs is critical for the development of new and more powerful biocatalysts: loops can be modulated for tuning important DyP properties such as activity, specificity and stability.

Structural and Biochemical Characterization of a Dye-Decolorizing Peroxidase from Dictyostelium discoideum

A novel cytoplasmic dye-decolorizing peroxidase from Dictyostelium discoideum was investigated that oxidizes anthraquinone dyes, lignin model compounds, and general peroxidase substrates such as ABTS efficiently. Unlike related enzymes, an aspartate residue replaces the first glycine of the conserved GXXDG motif in Dictyostelium DyPA. In solution, Dictyostelium DyPA exists as a stable dimer with the side chain of Asp146 contributing to the stabilization of the dimer interface by extending the hydrogen bond network connecting two monomers. To gain mechanistic insights, we solved the Dictyostelium DyPA structures in the absence of substrate as well as in the presence of potassium cyanide and veratryl alcohol to 1.7, 1.85, and 1.6 Å resolution, respectively. The active site of Dictyostelium DyPA has a hexa-coordinated heme iron with a histidine residue at the proximal axial position and either an activated oxygen or CN^- molecule at the distal axial position. Asp149 is in an optimal conformation to accept a proton from H₂O₂ during the formation of compound I. Two potential distal solvent channels and a conserved shallow pocket leading to the heme molecule were found in Dictyostelium DyPA. Further, we identified two substrate-binding pockets per monomer in Dictyostelium DyPA at the dimer interface. Long-range electron transfer pathways associated with a hydrogen-bonding network that connects the substrate-binding sites with the heme moiety are described.