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Wu J, Ye W, Feng Y, Lao W, Li J, Lu H, Liu G, Su G, Deng Y. Aquatic photolysis of high-risk fluorinated liquid crystal monomers: Kinetics, toxicity evaluation, and mechanisms. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 255:121510. [PMID: 38555780 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Despite the frequent detection of fluorinated liquid-crystal monomers (FLCMs) in the environment, the level of understanding of their fate, toxicity, and transformation remains insufficient. Herein, we investigated the degradation kinetics and mechanism of an FLCM (4-cyano-3-fluorophenyl 4-ethylbenzoate, CEB-F) under ultraviolet (UV) photolysis in aquatic environment. Our findings demonstrated that the UV photolysis of CEB-F followed first-order kinetics. Photodegradation products were identified using liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry, and detailed reaction pathways were proposed. It is postulated that through the attack of reactive oxygen species, hydroxylation, and CO/C-F bond cleavage, CEB-F gradually degraded into small molecular compounds, releasing fluorine ions. Acute immobilization tests with Daphnia magna (D. magna) revealed significant acute toxicity of CEB-F, with LC50 values ranging from 1.023 to 0.0536 μM over 24 to 96 h, emphasizing the potential high risk of FLCMs in aquatic ecosystems if inadvertently discharged. Interestingly, we found that the toxicity of CEB-F photolysis reaction solutions was effectively reduced. Through catalase and acetylcholinesterase activities analysis along with molecular docking simulation, we proposed differences in the underlying toxicity mechanisms of CEB-F and its photolysis products to D. magna. These findings highlight the potential harmful effects of FLCMs on aquatic ecosystems and enrich our understanding of the photolysis behavior of FLCMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyi Wu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Weibiao Ye
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yiping Feng
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, China.
| | - Wenhao Lao
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Junchun Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Contaminated Sites Environmental Management and Remediation, Guangdong Provincial Academy of Environmental Science, Guangzhou, 510045, China
| | - Haijian Lu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Contaminated Sites Environmental Management and Remediation, Guangdong Provincial Academy of Environmental Science, Guangzhou, 510045, China
| | - Guoguang Liu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Guanyong Su
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Research Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210094, China
| | - Yirong Deng
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, China; Guangdong Key Laboratory of Contaminated Sites Environmental Management and Remediation, Guangdong Provincial Academy of Environmental Science, Guangzhou, 510045, China.
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McFadden M, Reber KP, Sivey JD, Cwiertny DM, LeFevre GH. Microbial Biotransformation Products and Pathways of Dichloroacetamide Herbicide Safeners. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY LETTERS 2023; 10:72-78. [PMID: 37091899 PMCID: PMC10111411 DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.2c00862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Dichloroacetamide safeners are common ingredients in commercial herbicide formulations. We previously investigated the environmental fate of dichloroacetamides via photolysis and hydrolysis, but other potentially important, environmentally relevant fate processes remain uncharacterized and may yield products of concern. Here, we examined microbial biotransformation of two dichloroacetamide safeners, benoxacor and dichlormid, to identify products and elucidate pathways. Using aerobic microcosms inoculated with river sediment, we demonstrated that microbial biotransformations of benoxacor and dichlormid proceed primarily, if not exclusively, via cometabolism. Benoxacor was transformed by both hydrolysis and microbial biotransformation processes; in most cases, biotransformation rates were faster than hydrolysis rates. We identified multiple novel products of benoxacor and dichlormid not previously observed for microbial processes, with several products similar to those reported for structurally related chloroacetamide herbicides, thus indicating potential for conserved biotransformation mechanisms across both chemical classes. Observed products include monochlorinated species such as the banned herbicide CDAA (from dichlormid), glutathione conjugates, and sulfur-containing species. We propose a transformation pathway wherein benoxacor and dichlormid are first dechlorinated, likely via microbial hydrolysis, and subsequently conjugated with glutathione. This is the first study reporting biological dechlorination of dichloroacetamides to yield monochlorinated products in aerobic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica
E. McFadden
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa, 4105 Seamans Center for the Engineering Arts and Sciences, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
- IIHR-Hydroscience
and Engineering, University of Iowa, 100 C. Maxwell Stanley Hydraulics
Laboratory, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Keith P. Reber
- Department
of Chemistry, Towson University, Towson, Maryland 21252, United States
| | - John D. Sivey
- Department
of Chemistry, Towson University, Towson, Maryland 21252, United States
| | - David M. Cwiertny
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa, 4105 Seamans Center for the Engineering Arts and Sciences, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
- IIHR-Hydroscience
and Engineering, University of Iowa, 100 C. Maxwell Stanley Hydraulics
Laboratory, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
- Center
for Health Effects of Environmental Contamination (CHEEC), University of Iowa, 251 North Capitol St., Chemistry Building, Room W195, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
- Public
Policy Center, University of Iowa, 310 South Grand Ave., 209 South
Quadrangle, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Gregory H. LeFevre
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa, 4105 Seamans Center for the Engineering Arts and Sciences, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
- IIHR-Hydroscience
and Engineering, University of Iowa, 100 C. Maxwell Stanley Hydraulics
Laboratory, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
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Simonsen D, Heffelfinger J, Cwiertny DM, Lehmler HJ. The dichloroacetamide safener benoxacor is enantioselectively metabolized by monkey liver microsomes and cytosol. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2022; 96:104008. [PMID: 36341964 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2022.104008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The metabolism and toxicity of current-use herbicide safeners remain understudied. We investigated the enantioselective metabolism of the safener benoxacor in Rhesus monkey subcellular fractions. Benoxacor was incubated with liver microsomes and cytosol from female and male monkeys (≤30 min). Benoxacor levels and enantiomeric fractions were determined with gas chromatography. Benoxacor was metabolized by microsomal cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYPs), cytosolic glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs), and microsomal and cytosolic carboxylesterase (CESs). CES-mediated microsomal metabolism followed the order males > females, whereas the CYP-mediated clearance followed the order females > males. CYP-mediated metabolism initially resulted in an enrichment of the second eluting benoxacor enantiomer (E2-benoxacor), whereas the first eluting benoxacor enantiomer (E1-benoxacor) was enriched after 10 or 30 min in female or male microsomal incubations. Benoxacor metabolism by GSTs was enantiospecific, with a total depletion of E1-benoxacor after approximately 20 min. Thus, the enantioselective metabolism of benoxacor by GSTs and CYPs may affect its toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek Simonsen
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States; Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Human Toxicology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States; IIHR Hydroscience and Engineering, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
| | - Jacob Heffelfinger
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
| | - David M Cwiertny
- IIHR Hydroscience and Engineering, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States; Center for Health Effects of Environmental Contamination, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242
| | - Hans-Joachim Lehmler
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States; Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Human Toxicology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States; IIHR Hydroscience and Engineering, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States.
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Lanasa S, Niedzwiecki M, Reber KP, East A, Sivey JD, Salice CJ. Comparative Toxicity of Herbicide Active Ingredients, Safener Additives, and Commercial Formulations to the Nontarget Alga Raphidocelis Subcapitata. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2022; 41:1466-1476. [PMID: 35262227 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Chloroacetanilide herbicides are used worldwide to control weeds that affect crops such as corn, soybeans, and cotton. These herbicides are frequently paired with a "safener," which prevents herbicidal damage to the crop without diminishing weed control. Formulated herbicide products that include safeners and other ingredients are infrequently assessed for toxicity. Our goal was to understand the potential toxicity of safeners and herbicide + safener formulations relative to the toxicity of associated active ingredients. We quantified the concentration of safeners in commercially available formulations and tested effects on nontarget algae, Raphidocelis subcapitata, when exposed to individual herbicide active ingredients, safeners, and commercial formulations. The median effective concentrations (EC50s) causing 50% reduction in population growth for the herbicide active ingredients S-metolachlor and acetochlor were 0.046 and 0.003 ppm, respectively. The safeners benoxacor, AD-67, furilazole, and dichlormid were all substantially less toxic than the herbicides and were not toxic at environmentally relevant concentrations. The commercial formulations Dual II Magnum®, Me-Too-Lachlor II®, Harness®, and Surpass EC® all resulted in EC50 values that fell within the 95% confidence interval of the associated active ingredient herbicide. Interestingly, a significant increase in cell size was observed when algae were exposed to all the formulations, herbicides (acetochlor and S-metolachlor), and safener (dichlormid). The safener furilazole caused a significant decrease in cell size, whereas benoxacor and AD-67 had no observed effect on algae cell size. Significant algae cell size effects all occurred at or above the EC50 concentrations for each chemical, suggesting that other morphological effects may be occurring. Importantly, safeners in commercial formulations appeared not to impact toxicity to R. subcapitata compared with the active ingredient alone. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:1466-1476. © 2022 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Lanasa
- Environmental Science and Studies Program, Towson University, Towson, Maryland, USA
| | - Mark Niedzwiecki
- Department of Chemistry, Towson University, Towson, Maryland, USA
| | - Keith P Reber
- Department of Chemistry, Towson University, Towson, Maryland, USA
| | - Andrew East
- Environmental Science and Studies Program, Towson University, Towson, Maryland, USA
| | - John D Sivey
- Department of Chemistry, Towson University, Towson, Maryland, USA
| | - Christopher J Salice
- Environmental Science and Studies Program, Towson University, Towson, Maryland, USA
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