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Kılıç E, Fullana-I-Palmer P, Fullana M, Delgado-Aguilar M, Puig R. Circularity of new composites from recycled high density polyethylene and leather waste for automotive bumpers. Testing performance and environmental impact. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 919:170413. [PMID: 38309365 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/05/2024]
Abstract
New composite materials (suitable for automotive bumpers), composed of recycled high-density polyethylene (rHDPE) and leather buffing dust waste (BF) ranging from 20 to 50 wt%, were produced and investigated for mechanical properties. Optimal mechanical performance was achieved with composites containing 30 % wt BF. The environmental performance of automotive bumper production from both virgin and recycled HDPE reinforced with 30 % wt BF (HDPE-BF, rHDPE-BF) composites was compared to that of conventional polypropylene (PP) by performing a cradle to gate life cycle assessment. A component-based approach, instead of a comprehensive LCA assessment for the entire car was adopted using various functional units (FU) such as mass (FU1), volume (FU2), and volume of raw material fulfilling a specific impact strength requirement (FU3), thus enriching the paper with methodological discussions. The rHDPE-BF system provided better environmental performance compared to the virgin PP system, when considering both mass and volume-related functional units, mainly due to the avoidance of virgin polymer production. Even with the inclusion of the use phase in FU2 and a slightly higher density (+1.7 %) of composites than PP-based bumpers, the rHDPE system still provides better environmental performance (10 % less impact). The sensitivity analysis highlighted the significance of car type and final density of the bumper on the impact results. Finally, when using FU3, due to its higher impact strength, HDPE-BF system is clearly the best environmental alternative (50 % less impact) followed by rHDPE-BF system. In all cases, rising the content of recycled materials in the bumpers increases its circularity. The paper illustrates the importance of selecting a suitable functional unit, based on a specific application (i.e., automotive bumpers), to evaluate the environmental impact of new composite materials in comparison to traditional options. Expanding the assessment to encompass multiple functions provides a more accurate portrayal of reality but also introduces greater result uncertainty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eylem Kılıç
- Leather Engineering Department, Ege University, 35100 İzmir, Turkey.
| | - Pere Fullana-I-Palmer
- UNESCO Chair in Life Cycle and Climate Change ESCI-UPF, University Pompeu Fabra, 08003 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Margalida Fullana
- LEPAMAP-PRODIS Research Group, University of Girona, 17003 Girona, Spain
| | | | - Rita Puig
- ABBU Research Group, Department of Industrial and Building Engineering, University of Lleida (UdL), 08700 Igualada, Spain.
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2
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Kim HC, Lee S, Wallington TJ. Cradle-to-Gate and Use-Phase Carbon Footprint of a Commercial Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Battery. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:11834-11842. [PMID: 37515579 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c01346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/31/2023]
Abstract
Increased use of vehicle electrification to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has led to the need for an accurate and comprehensive assessment of the carbon footprint of traction batteries. Unfortunately, there are few lifecycle assessments (LCAs) of commercial lithium-ion batteries available in the literature, and those that are available focus on the cradle-to-gate stage, often with little or no consideration of the use phase. To address this shortfall, we report both cradle-to-gate and use-phase GHG emissions for the 2020 Model Year Ford Explorer plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) NMC622 battery. Using primary industry data for battery design and manufacturing, cradle-to-gate emissions are estimated to be 1.38 t CO2e (101 kg CO2e/kWh), with 78% from materials and parts production and 22% from cell, module, and pack manufacturing. Using mass-induced energy consumptions of 0.6 and 1.6 kWh/(100 km 100 kg) for charge-depleting and -sustaining modes, respectively, the mass-induced use-phase emission of the battery is estimated to be 1.04 t CO2e. We show that battery emissions during the cradle-to-gate and use phases are comparable and that both phases need to be considered. A holistic and harmonized LCA approach that includes battery use is required to reduce carbon footprint uncertainties and guide future battery designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Sunghoon Lee
- ESG Impact Team, LG Energy Solution, Seoul 07335, Republic of Korea
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
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3
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Melo de Lima LR, Dias AC, Trindade T, Oliveira JM. A comparative life cycle assessment of graphene nanoplatelets- and glass fibre-reinforced poly(propylene) composites for automotive applications. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 871:162140. [PMID: 36764529 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The circulation of motor vehicles with an exhaust system is one of the leading causes of pollution. Due to the risk factor for human health and contribution to climate change, countries have been growing efforts to achieve a sustainable level of air quality and limit carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in recent years. Hence, there has been significant interest in developing technological innovations such as alternative fuels and lighter thermoplastic composites for auto applications. Thermoplastic nanocomposites show substantial properties improvements, incorporating much lower nanofiller percentages than fibre-reinforced thermoplastic composites, allowing for a reduction in the weight of automotive parts (AP). For these motivations, this study presents a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of poly(propylene) (PP)-based graphene nanoplatelets (GnPs) nanocomposite and PP/glass fibre (GF) composite for automotive applications. The AP selected as the functional unit was the front end part of 1.5 tons weight car. The LCA included preparing raw materials, AP manufacturing, AP use, and AP end-of-life (EoL). Three different EoL scenarios were considered in this analysis. Several midpoint environmental impact indicators were evaluated. Overall, the results suggest that the different EoL scenarios do not affect the global environmental impact of both AP systems. The environmental impacts of the AP depend on the type of material. The AP of the PP-based GnPs nanocomposite exhibited a weight 28 % lower than the AP of the PP/GF composite. This lightweight resulted in energy and emissions savings, especially during the AP use stage, which was the stage with the most significant contribution in most environmental impact categories. Using nanocomposite reduced the AP environmental impact from 17 % to 75 %, depending on the impact category. The study suggested that substituting traditional composite with a new lighter nanocomposite can decrease the global environmental impacts caused by AP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luiza R Melo de Lima
- EMaRT Group-Emerging: Materials, Research, Technology, School of Design, Management and Production Technologies Northern Aveiro, University of Aveiro, Estrada do Cercal, 449, 3720-509 Oliveira de Azeméis, Portugal; Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Ana C Dias
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), Department of Environment and Planning, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Tito Trindade
- Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - José M Oliveira
- EMaRT Group-Emerging: Materials, Research, Technology, School of Design, Management and Production Technologies Northern Aveiro, University of Aveiro, Estrada do Cercal, 449, 3720-509 Oliveira de Azeméis, Portugal; CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
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4
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Baars J, Cerdas F, Heidrich O. An Integrated Model to Conduct Multi-Criteria Technology Assessments: The Case of Electric Vehicle Batteries. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:5056-5067. [PMID: 36913650 PMCID: PMC10061934 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c04080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The large-scale adoption of low-carbon technologies can result in trade-offs between technical, socio-economic, and environmental aspects. To assess such trade-offs, discipline-specific models typically used in isolation need to be integrated to support decisions. Integrated modeling approaches, however, usually remain at the conceptual level, and operationalization efforts are lacking. Here, we propose an integrated model and framework to guide the assessment and engineering of technical, socio-economic, and environmental aspects of low-carbon technologies. The framework was tested with a case study of design strategies aimed to improve the material sustainability of electric vehicle batteries. The integrated model assesses the trade-offs between the costs, emissions, material criticality, and energy density of 20,736 unique material design options. The results show clear conflicts between energy density and the other indicators: i.e., energy density is reduced by more than 20% when the costs, emissions, or material criticality objectives are optimized. Finding optimal battery designs that balance between these objectives remains difficult but is essential to establishing a sustainable battery system. The results exemplify how the integrated model can be used as a decision support tool for researchers, companies, and policy makers to optimize low-carbon technology designs from various perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joris Baars
- Fraunhofer
Institute for Surface Engineering and Thin Films IST, Bienroder Weg 54E, Braunschweig 38108, Germany
- School
of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1
7RU, United Kingdom
| | - Felipe Cerdas
- Fraunhofer
Institute for Surface Engineering and Thin Films IST, Bienroder Weg 54E, Braunschweig 38108, Germany
- Institute
of Machine Tools and Production Technologies, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig 38106, Germany
| | - Oliver Heidrich
- School
of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1
7RU, United Kingdom
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5
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Kemp NJ, Li L, Keoleian GA, Kim HC, Wallington TJ, De Kleine R. Carbon Footprint of Alternative Grocery Shopping and Transportation Options from Retail Distribution Centers to Customer. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:11798-11806. [PMID: 35930734 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c02050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the growth of e-commerce and automated warehouses, vehicles, and robots and has created new options for grocery supply chains. We report and compare the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for a 36-item grocery basket transported along 72 unique paths from a centralized warehouse to the customer, including impacts of micro-fulfillment centers, refrigeration, vehicle automation, and last-mile transportation. Our base case is in-store shopping with last-mile transportation using an internal combustion engine (ICE) SUV (6.0 kg CO2e). The results indicate that emissions reductions could be achieved by e-commerce with micro-fulfillment centers (16-54%), customer vehicle electrification (18-42%), or grocery delivery (22-65%) compared to the base case. In-store shopping with an ICE pick-up truck has the highest emissions of all paths investigated (6.9 kg CO2e) while delivery using a sidewalk automated robot has the least (1.0 kg CO2e). Shopping frequency is an important factor for households to consider, e.g. halving shopping frequency can reduce GHG emissions by 44%. Trip chaining also offers an opportunity to reduce emissions with approximately 50% savings compared to the base case. Opportunities for grocers and households to reduce grocery supply chain carbon footprints are identified and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J Kemp
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Luyao Li
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Gregory A Keoleian
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Robert De Kleine
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
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6
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Greenhouse Gas Emissions Performance of Electric and Fossil-Fueled Passenger Vehicles with Uncertainty Estimates Using a Probabilistic Life-Cycle Assessment. SUSTAINABILITY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/su14063444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
A technology assessment is conducted for battery electric and conventional fossil-fueled passenger vehicles for three Australian scenarios and seven Australian states and territories. This study uses a probabilistic life-cycle assessment (pLCA) to explicitly quantify uncertainty in the LCA inputs and results. Parametric input distributions are developed using statistical techniques. For the 2018 Australian electricity mix, which is still largely fossil fuels based, the weight of evidence suggests that electric vehicles will reduce GHG emission rates by 29% to 41%. For the ‘fossil fuels only’ marginal electricity scenario, electric vehicles are still expected to significantly reduce emission rates by between 10% and 32%. Large reductions between 74% and 80% are observed for the more renewables scenario. For the Australian jurisdictions, the average LCA GHG emission factors vary substantially for conventional vehicles (364–390 g CO2-e/km), but particularly for electric vehicles (98–287 g CO2-e/km), which reflects the differences in fuel mix for electricity generation in the different states and territories. Electrification of the Tasmanian on-road fleet has the largest predicted fleet average reduction in LCA greenhouse gas emissions of 243–300 g CO2-e/km. A sensitivity analysis with alternative input distributions suggests that the outcomes from this study are robust.
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7
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Assessment of the Impact of Material Selection on Aviation Sustainability, from a Circular Economy Perspective. AEROSPACE 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/aerospace9020052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Climate change and global warming pose great sustainability challenges to the aviation industry. Alternatives to petroleum-based fuels (hydrogen, natural gas, etc.) have emerged as promising aviation fuels for future aircraft. The present study aimed to contribute to the understanding of the impact of material selection on aviation sustainability, accounting for the type of fuel implemented and circular economy aspects. In this context, a decision support tool was introduced to aid decision-makers and relevant stakeholders to identify and select the best-performing materials that meet their defined needs and preferences, expressed through a finite set of conflicting criteria associated with ecological, economic, and circularity aspects. The proposed tool integrates life-cycle-based metrics extending to both ecological and economical dimensions and a proposed circular economy indicator (CEI) focused on the material/component level and linked to its quality characteristics, which also accounts for the quality degradation of materials which have undergone one or more recycling loops. The tool is coupled with a multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) methodology in order to reduce subjectivity when determining the importance of each of the considered criteria.
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8
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Li L, He X, Keoleian GA, Kim HC, De Kleine R, Wallington TJ, Kemp NJ. Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Last-Mile Parcel Delivery by Automated Vehicles and Robots. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:11360-11367. [PMID: 34328327 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c08213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Increased E-commerce and demand for contactless delivery during the COVID-19 pandemic have fueled interest in robotic package delivery. We evaluate life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for automated suburban ground delivery systems consisting of a vehicle (last-mile) and a robot (final-50-feet). Small and large cargo vans (125 and 350 cubic feet; V125 and V350) with an internal combustion engine (ICEV) and battery electric (BEV) powertrains were assessed for three delivery scenarios: (i) conventional, human-driven vehicle with human delivery; (ii) partially automated, human-driven vehicle with robot delivery; and (iii) fully automated, connected automated vehicle (CAV) with robot delivery. The robot's contribution to life cycle GHG emissions is small (2-6%). Compared to the conventional scenario, full automation results in similar GHG emissions for the V350-ICEV but 10% higher for the V125-BEV. Conventional delivery with a V125-BEV provides the lowest GHG emissions, 167 g CO2e/package, while partially automated delivery with a V350-ICEV generates the most at 486 g CO2e/package. Fuel economy and delivery density are key parameters, and electrification of the vehicle and carbon intensity of the electricity have a large impact. CAV power requirements and efficiency benefits largely offset each other, and automation has a moderate impact on life cycle GHG emissions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luyao Li
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Xiaoyi He
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Gregory A Keoleian
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Robert De Kleine
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Nicholas J Kemp
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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9
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Snopiński P, Donič T, Tański T, Matus K, Hadzima B, Bastovansky R. Ultrasound Effect on the Microstructure and Hardness of AlMg3 Alloy under Upsetting. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14041010. [PMID: 33672744 PMCID: PMC7924636 DOI: 10.3390/ma14041010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
To date, numerous investigations have shown the beneficial effect of ultrasonic vibration-assisted forming technology due to its influence on the forming load, flow stress, friction condition reduction and the increase of the metal forming limit. Although the immediate occurring force and mean stress reduction are known phenomena, the underlying effects of ultrasonic-based material softening remain an object of current research. Therefore, in this article, we investigate the effect of upsetting with and without the ultrasonic vibrations (USV) on the evolution of the microstructure, stress relaxation and hardness of the AlMg3 aluminum alloy. To understand the process physics, after the UAC (ultrasonic assisted compression), the microstructures of the samples were analyzed by light and electron microscopy, including the orientation imaging via electron backscatter diffraction. According to the test result, it is found that ultrasonic vibration can reduce flow stress during the ultrasonic-assisted compression (UAC) process for the investigated aluminum–magnesium alloy due to the acoustic softening effect. By comparing the microstructures of samples compressed with and without simultaneous application of ultrasonic vibrations, the enhanced shear banding and grain rotation were found to be responsible for grain refinement enhancement. The coupled action of the ultrasonic vibrations and plastic deformation decreased the grains of AlMg3 alloy from ~270 μm to ~1.52 μm, which has resulted in a hardness enhancement of UAC processed sample to about 117 HV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Przemysław Snopiński
- Department of Engineering Materials and Biomaterials, Silesian University of Technology, 18A Konarskiego Street, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland;
- Correspondence:
| | - Tibor Donič
- Research Centre of University of Žilina, University of Žilina, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia; (T.D.); (B.H.)
| | - Tomasz Tański
- Department of Engineering Materials and Biomaterials, Silesian University of Technology, 18A Konarskiego Street, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland;
| | - Krzysztof Matus
- Materials Research Laboratory, Silesian University of Technology, 18A Konarskiego Street, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland;
| | - Branislav Hadzima
- Research Centre of University of Žilina, University of Žilina, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia; (T.D.); (B.H.)
| | - Ronald Bastovansky
- Department of Design and Mechanical Elements, University of Žilina, Univerzitná 8215/1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia;
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10
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Automotive Lightweight Design: Simulation Modeling of Mass-Related Consumption for Electric Vehicles. MACHINES 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/machines8030051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A thorough assessment of Life-Cycle effects involved by vehicle lightweighting needs a rigorous evaluation of mass-induced consumption, on which energy and sustainability benefits during use stage directly depend. The paper proposes an analytical calculation procedure to estimate the weight-related energy consumption of pure Electric Vehicles (EVs), since existing literature leaves considerable room for improvement regarding this research area. The correlation between consumption and mass is expressed through the Energy Reduction Value (ERV) coefficient, which quantifies the specific consumption saving achievable through 100 kg mass reduction. The ERV is estimated for a number of heterogeneous case studies derived from real 2019 European market EV models and according to three drive cycles, to consider different driving behaviors. For the case studies under consideration, ERV ranges from 0.47 to 1.17 kWh/(100 km × 100 kg), with the variability mainly depending on vehicle size and driving cycle. Given the high uncertainty of mass-related consumption on car size, an analytical method is refined to estimate accurately the ERV for any real-world EV model, starting from vehicle technical features. Along with energy assessment, the research also evaluates the environmental implications of lightweight design by means of the Impact Reduction Value (IRV), which is estimated for three distinct electricity grid mixes. Finally, the ERV/IRV modeling approach is applied to a series of comparative lightweight case studies taken from the literature. Such an application demonstrates the effective utility of the work to reduce the uncertainty for all cases where no physical tests or computer-aided simulations are available.
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11
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Design of Eco-Efficient Body Parts for Electric Vehicles Considering Life Cycle Environmental Information. SUSTAINABILITY 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/su12145838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions over the entire life cycle of vehicles has become part of the strategic objectives in automotive industry. In this regard, the design of future body parts should be carried out based on information of life cycle GHG emissions. The substitution of steel towards lightweight materials is a major trend, with the industry undergoing a fundamental shift towards the introduction of electric vehicles (EV). The present research aims to support the conceptual design of body parts with a combined perspective on mechanical performance and life cycle GHG emissions. Particular attention is paid to the fact that the GHG impact of EV in the use phase depends on vehicle-specific factors that may not be specified at the conceptual design stage of components, such as the market-specific electricity mix used for vehicle charging. A methodology is proposed that combines a simplified numerical design of concept alternatives and an analytic approach estimating life cycle GHG emissions. It is applied to a case study in body part design based on a set of principal geometries and load cases, a range of materials (aluminum, glass and carbon fiber reinforced plastics (GFRP, CFRP) as substitution to a steel reference) and different use stage scenarios of EV. A new engineering chart was developed, which helps design engineers to compare life cycle GHG emissions of lightweight material concepts to the reference. For body shells, the replacement of the steel reference with aluminum or GFRP shows reduced lifecycle GHG emissions for most use phase scenarios. This holds as well for structural parts being designed on torsional stiffness. For structural parts designed on tension/compression or bending stiffness CFRP designs show lowest lifecycle GHG emissions. In all cases, a high share of renewable electricity mix and a short lifetime pose the steel reference in favor. It is argued that a further elaboration of the approach could substantially increase transparency between design choices and life cycle GHG emissions.
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12
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Design of a Lightweight Rear Crash Management System in a Sustainable Perspective. SUSTAINABILITY 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/su12135243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The paper presents an innovative lightweight design solution for the rear crash management system of a C-class car, developed within the AffordabLe LIghtweight Automobiles AlliaNCE (ALLIANCE) EU research project. The innovation provides that the reference version of the module, based on conventional steel components, is revolutionized through the introduction of extruded 6000/7000 series aluminum alloys. The two competing alternatives are described and compared in relation to design and technological solutions, including also a sustainability analysis which assesses the entire Life Cycle (LC) of the system on the basis of a wide range of environmental indicators. The lightweight solution allows achieving a large mass reduction (almost 40%), while providing improvements in terms of strength, production efficiency and design freedom. On the other hand, the introduction of new materials and manufacturing technologies entails contrasting sustainability effects depending on impact category, thus not allowing to affirm that the novel alternative is unequivocally preferable under the environmental point of view. However, the comprehensive evaluation of all sustainability aspects through a multi-criteria decision analysis (TOPSIS method) reveals that the environmental profile of the innovative design is slightly preferable with respect to the conventional one.
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13
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Wu D, Guo F, Field FR, De Kleine RD, Kim HC, Wallington TJ, Kirchain RE. Regional Heterogeneity in the Emissions Benefits of Electrified and Lightweighted Light-Duty Vehicles. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:10560-10570. [PMID: 31336049 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b00648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Electrification and lightweighting technologies are important components of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction strategies for light-duty vehicles. Assessments of GHG emissions from light-duty vehicles should take a cradle-to-grave life cycle perspective and capture important regional effects. We report the first regionally explicit (county-level) life cycle assessment of the use of lightweighting and electrification for light-duty vehicles in the U.S. Regional differences in climate, electric grid burdens, and driving patterns compound to produce significant regional heterogeneity in the GHG benefits of electrification. We show that lightweighting further accentuates these regional differences. In fact, for the midsized cars considered in our analysis, model results suggest that aluminum lightweight vehicles with a combustion engine would have similar emissions to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) in about 25% of the counties in the US and lower than battery electric vehicles (BEVs) in 20% of counties. The results highlight the need for a portfolio of fuel efficient offerings to recognize the heterogeneity of regional climate, electric grid burdens, and driving patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Wu
- Materials Systems Laboratory , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Fengdi Guo
- Materials Systems Laboratory , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Frank R Field
- Materials Systems Laboratory , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Robert D De Kleine
- Research and Innovation Center , Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 , United States
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center , Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 , United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center , Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 , United States
| | - Randolph E Kirchain
- Materials Systems Laboratory , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
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14
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Lewis GM, Buchanan CA, Jhaveri KD, Sullivan JL, Kelly JC, Das S, Taub AI, Keoleian GA. Green Principles for Vehicle Lightweighting. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:4063-4077. [PMID: 30892881 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b05897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
A large portion of life cycle transportation impacts occur during vehicle operation, and key improvement strategies include increasing powertrain efficiency, vehicle electrification, and lightweighting vehicles by reducing their mass. The potential energy benefits of vehicle lightweighting are large, given that 29.5 EJ was used in all modes of U.S. transportation in 2016, and roughly half of the energy spent in wheeled transportation and the majority of energy spent in aircraft is used to move vehicle mass. We collect and review previous work on lightweighting, identify key parameters affecting vehicle environmental performance (e.g., vehicle mode, fuel type, material type, and recyclability), and propose a set of 10 principles, with examples, to guide environmental improvement of vehicle systems through lightweighting. These principles, based on a life cycle perspective and taken as a set, allow a wide range of stakeholders (designers, policy-makers, and vehicle manufacturers and their material and component suppliers) to evaluate the trade-offs inherent in these complex systems. This set of principles can be used to evaluate trade-offs between impact categories and to help avoid shifting of burdens to other life cycle phases in the process of improving use-phase environmental performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey M Lewis
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment & Sustainability , University of Michigan , 440 Church Street , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Cailin A Buchanan
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment & Sustainability , University of Michigan , 440 Church Street , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , University of Michigan , 2098 HH Dow , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48019 , United States
| | - Krutarth D Jhaveri
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment & Sustainability , University of Michigan , 440 Church Street , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , University of Michigan , 2098 HH Dow , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48019 , United States
| | - John L Sullivan
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment & Sustainability , University of Michigan , 440 Church Street , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Jarod C Kelly
- Energy Systems Division , Argonne National Laboratory , 9700 S. Cass Avenue , Argonne , Illinois 60439 , United States
| | - Sujit Das
- Energy and Transportation Sciences Division , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge , Tennessee 37831 , United States
| | - Alan I Taub
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , University of Michigan , 2098 HH Dow , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48019 , United States
- Lightweight Innovations For Tomorrow , 1400 Rosa Parks Boulevard , Detroit , Michigan 48216 , United States
| | - Gregory A Keoleian
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment & Sustainability , University of Michigan , 440 Church Street , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
- Lightweight Innovations For Tomorrow , 1400 Rosa Parks Boulevard , Detroit , Michigan 48216 , United States
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15
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Abstract
Interest and investment in electric vertical takeoff and landing aircraft (VTOLs), commonly known as flying cars, have grown significantly. However, their sustainability implications are unclear. We report a physics-based analysis of primary energy and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of VTOLs vs. ground-based cars. Tilt-rotor/duct/wing VTOLs are efficient when cruising but consume substantial energy for takeoff and climb; hence, their burdens depend critically on trip distance. For our base case, traveling 100 km (point-to-point) with one pilot in a VTOL results in well-to-wing/wheel GHG emissions that are 35% lower but 28% higher than a one-occupant internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) and battery electric vehicle (BEV), respectively. Comparing fully loaded VTOLs (three passengers) with ground-based cars with an average occupancy of 1.54, VTOL GHG emissions per passenger-kilometer are 52% lower than ICEVs and 6% lower than BEVs. VTOLs offer fast, predictable transportation and could have a niche role in sustainable mobility. Vertical takeoff and landing aircraft (VTOLs), or “flying cars” can shorten commute time and could play a niche role in sustainable mobility. The authors estimate that over long distances, fully-loaded electric VTOL taxis could result in fewer GHG emissions than average occupancy ground-based cars.
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16
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Milovanoff A, Kim HC, De Kleine R, Wallington TJ, Posen ID, MacLean HL. A Dynamic Fleet Model of U.S Light-Duty Vehicle Lightweighting and Associated Greenhouse Gas Emissions from 2016 to 2050. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:2199-2208. [PMID: 30682256 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b04249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Substituting conventional materials with lightweight materials is an effective way to reduce the life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from light-duty vehicles. However, estimated GHG emission reductions of lightweighting depend on multiple factors including the vehicle powertrain technology and efficiency, lightweight material employed, and end-of-life material recovery. We developed a fleet-based life cycle model to estimate the GHG emission changes due to lightweighting the U.S. light-duty fleet from 2016 to 2050, using either high strength steel or aluminum as the lightweight material. Our model estimates that implementation of an aggressive lightweighting scenario using aluminum reduces 2016 through 2050 cumulative life cycle GHG emissions from the fleet by 2.9 Gt CO2 eq (5.6%), and annual emissions in 2050 by 11%. Lightweighting has the greatest GHG emission reduction potential when implemented in the near-term, with two times more reduction per kilometer traveled if implemented in 2016 rather than in 2030. Delaying implementation by 15 years sacrifices 72% (2.1 Gt CO2 eq) of the cumulative GHG emission mitigation potential through 2050. Lightweighting is an effective solution that could provide important near-term GHG emission reductions especially during the next 10-20 years when the fleet is dominated by conventional powertrain vehicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Milovanoff
- Department of Civil & Mineral Engineering , University of Toronto , 35 St. George Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 1A4 Canada
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Materials & Manufacturing R&A Department , Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121-2053 , United States
| | - Robert De Kleine
- Materials & Manufacturing R&A Department , Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121-2053 , United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Materials & Manufacturing R&A Department , Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121-2053 , United States
| | - I Daniel Posen
- Department of Civil & Mineral Engineering , University of Toronto , 35 St. George Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 1A4 Canada
| | - Heather L MacLean
- Department of Civil & Mineral Engineering , University of Toronto , 35 St. George Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 1A4 Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Applied Chemistry , University of Toronto , 200 College Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 3E5 Canada
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17
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Gawron JH, Keoleian GA, De Kleine RD, Wallington TJ, Kim HC. Life Cycle Assessment of Connected and Automated Vehicles: Sensing and Computing Subsystem and Vehicle Level Effects. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:3249-3256. [PMID: 29446302 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b04576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Although recent studies of connected and automated vehicles (CAVs) have begun to explore the potential energy and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission impacts from an operational perspective, little is known about how the full life cycle of the vehicle will be impacted. We report the results of a life cycle assessment (LCA) of Level 4 CAV sensing and computing subsystems integrated into internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) and battery electric vehicle (BEV) platforms. The results indicate that CAV subsystems could increase vehicle primary energy use and GHG emissions by 3-20% due to increases in power consumption, weight, drag, and data transmission. However, when potential operational effects of CAVs are included (e.g., eco-driving, platooning, and intersection connectivity), the net result is up to a 9% reduction in energy and GHG emissions in the base case. Overall, this study highlights opportunities where CAVs can improve net energy and environmental performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- James H Gawron
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability , University of Michigan , 440 Church Street , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Gregory A Keoleian
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability , University of Michigan , 440 Church Street , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Robert D De Kleine
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 , United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 , United States
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 , United States
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18
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Luk JM, Kim HC, De Kleine R, Wallington TJ, MacLean HL. Review of the Fuel Saving, Life Cycle GHG Emission, and Ownership Cost Impacts of Lightweighting Vehicles with Different Powertrains. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:8215-8228. [PMID: 28714678 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b00909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The literature analyzing the fuel saving, life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, and ownership cost impacts of lightweighting vehicles with different powertrains is reviewed. Vehicles with lower powertrain efficiencies have higher fuel consumption. Thus, fuel savings from lightweighting internal combustion engine vehicles can be higher than those of hybrid electric and battery electric vehicles. However, the impact of fuel savings on life cycle costs and GHG emissions depends on fuel prices, fuel carbon intensities and fuel storage requirements. Battery electric vehicle fuel savings enable reduction of battery size without sacrificing driving range. This reduces the battery production cost and mass, the latter results in further fuel savings. The carbon intensity of electricity varies widely and is a major source of uncertainty when evaluating the benefits of fuel savings. Hybrid electric vehicles use gasoline more efficiently than internal combustion engine vehicles and do not require large plug-in batteries. Therefore, the benefits of lightweighting depend on the vehicle powertrain. We discuss the value proposition of the use of lightweight materials and alternative powertrains. Future assessments of the benefits of vehicle lightweighting should capture the unique characteristics of emerging vehicle powertrains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason M Luk
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toronto , 35 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A4 Canada
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Materials & Manufacturing R&A Department, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Robert De Kleine
- Materials & Manufacturing R&A Department, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Materials & Manufacturing R&A Department, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Heather L MacLean
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toronto , 35 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A4 Canada
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