Strategic Materials in the Automobile: A Comprehensive Assessment of Strategic and Minor Metals Use in Passenger Cars and Light Trucks

Pollution characteristics and release mechanism of microplastics in a typical end-of-life vehicle (ELV) recycling base, East China

Microplastics (MPs) is a novel and significant pollution due to its eco-environmental hazards and ubiquity. In end-of-life vehicle (ELV) recycling base, MPs are widely distributed but have rare reported in scientific literature. In this study, a comprehensive analysis of MPs was conducted in a typical ELV recycling base. MPs were found in all samples at different sampling sites and environmental mediums. A total of 34 polymer types were detected by μ-FTIR, and the main polymers include PE-PP, ABS, polyester resin, nylon, and PEU plastic. MPs were released from the crushing, tearing, and breaking of plastic parts in ELVs. They were in high content in ground dust, with the abundance of 737-29,021 p/5 g D (the average abundance of 5552 ± 6435 p/5 g D). The abundance, shape, color, and size of MPs are related with functional areas of ELV recycling. Heavy metals could be adsorbed on MPs, and their contents on MPs have a significant correlation with those in the corresponding dust samples. At last, some specific MPs control measures, such as changing transportation mode, using dust-proof cloths, and equipping dust removal equipment, have been put forward.

Characterizing the Changes in Material Use due to Vehicle Electrification

Modern automobiles are composed of more than 2000 different compounds comprising 76 different elements. Identifying supply risks across this palette of materials is important to ensure a smooth transition to more sustainable transportation technologies. This paper provides insight into how electrification is changing vehicle composition and how that change drives supply risk vulnerability by providing the first comprehensive, high-resolution (elemental and compound level) snapshot of material use in both conventional and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) using a consistent methodology. To make these contributions, we analyze part-level data of material use for seven current year models, ranging from internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) to plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs). With this data set, we apply a novel machine learning algorithm to estimate missing or unreported composition data. We propose and apply a metric of vulnerability, referred to as exposure, which captures economic importance and susceptibility to price changes. We find that exposure increases from $874 per vehicle for ICEV passenger vehicles to $2344 per vehicle for SUV PHEVs. The shift to a PHEV fleet would double automaker exposure adding approximately $1 billion per year of supply risk to a hypothetical fleet of a million vehicles. The increase in exposure is largely not only due to the increased use of battery elements like cobalt, graphite, and nickel but also some more commonly used materials, most notably copper.

Promethium: To Strive, to Seek, to Find and Not to Yield

Promethium (Pm), element #61, got its name from the Greek Titan Prometheus, who stole fire from Zeus and passed it to people. The only element in the lanthanide series of the periodic table with no stable isotopes, Pm has found an impressive number of applications since its announcement in 1947 after World War II. Despite promethium having 38 known isotopes, ¹⁴⁷Pm is by far the most utilized and useful one. Promethium is used in long-life atomic batteries for satellites or space probes, satellite-to-submarine laser communication systems, “cosmic clocks” for the measurement of cosmic rays lifetime, monitoring of the changes in water content of citrus leaves caused by wetting and drying cycles in the soil, radiotherapy, and even for prevention of dandruff, to name but a few applications. During the Moon expeditions, Pm was used to illuminate instruments in the Apollo landing modules; currently it is used during preparations for long-term interplanetary missions (e.g., Mars) to simulate space conditions on Earth. This mini review offers a comprehensive illustration of promethium's history, synthesis techniques, properties, and its major applications in science, technology, and everyday life.

Critical material content in modern conventional U.S. vehicle electronics

Critical materials (CMs) are vital to modern technology. Components of modern vehicles can be recycled to recover and reuse the CMs to help ensure a supply of these materials. Electronic components from a 2015 GMC Sierra truck (21 components) and 2016 Toyota Camry sedan (10 components) were analyzed for CMs. The components were processed via size reduction, aqua regia leaching and dissolution, and final solutions were analyzed for metal content. It was found that most electronic components of both vehicles contain CMs. The most concentrated CMs in the components were Sn, Nb, and Tb. Nd and Co were found in several of the magnetic components. CM economic value was found to be low compared to the overall value of the components, and the CM content would not allow for a viable pathway for recycling. Remanufacturing of components may be a more economic option of reuse in the future.

Mapping anthropogenic mineral generation in China and its implications for a circular economy

Anthropogenic mineral is absorbing wide concern in the context of circular economy, but its generation mechanism and quantity from product to waste remain unclear. Here we consider three product groups, 30 products, and use the revised Weibull lifespan model to map the generation of anthropogenic mineral and 23 types of the capsulated materials by targeting their evolution from 2010 to 2050. Total weight of anthropogenic mineral on average in China reached 39 Mt in 2010, but it will double in 2022 and quadruple in 2045. Stocks of precious metals and rare earths will increase faster than most base materials. The total economic potential in yearly-generated anthropogenic mineral is anticipated to grow markedly from 100 billion US$ in 2020 to 400 billion US$ in 2050. Furthermore, anthropogenic mineral of around 20 materials will be capable to meet projected consumption of three product groups by 2050.

While a large quantity of underground mineral resources can be converted into manufactured products, a majority is still solid waste disposal. Here the authors found a large increase in total weight of anthropogenic mineral from 2010 to 2050 with faster growth rate for precious metals.

Estimating the Evolution of Urban Mining Resources in Hong Kong, Up to the Year 2050

Rapid urban metabolism is causing many resources to flow from consumption to waste. But many of these wastes could be secondary resources, and cities could become urban mines and an increasing supply of future resources. Hong Kong, one of the most developed and populated cities in the world, has demonstrated a completely metabolic evolution to be an urban mine, since the 1970s. Covering 14 types of e-waste and eight types of end-of-life vehicles, this study first investigates Hong Kong's evolution as an urban mine. The potential output weight of the urban mine quickly grew from 117 kt in 2000 to 368 kt in 2014, and it is estimated to remain in the range of 300-350 kt over the years 2015-2050, with 40-50 kg/cap/year. The economic potential of urban mining, for 18 metals, plastic, glass, and rubber tires, will be approximately US$2 billion annually, mainly contributed by precious and rare metals. All the obtained results contribute to Hong Kong's waste management and promise to have positive impact on urban mining and circular economy for other, less-developed cities or regions.

Recycling Potentials of Precious Metals from End-of-Life Vehicle Parts by Selective Dismantling

Recycling of some minor but essential scarce metals used in vehicles may serve as an important strategy to strengthen sustainable management of natural resources. Accordingly, this study focused on five precious metals (PMs): Au, Ag, Pt, Pd, and Rh, in both end-of-life conventional and next-generation vehicles. To explore their recycling potentials in Japan, we developed substance flow and scenario analyses based on estimations of PM contents per end-of-life vehicle (ELV) and ELV generations. The study predicts that in Japan, from 2015 to 2040, the content of PMs per ELV will range from 2 to 6 g, and the annual amount of PMs in ELVs will remain largely stable, at 14-15 t, but the proportions of PMs utilized in different vehicles, parts, and components will gradually change; in particular, increased proportions will occur in the printed wiring boards (PWBs) of next-generation vehicles. The results also show that, in Japan, totals of 33-53% of PMs in ELVs were recycled in 2015, and that by selective dismantling of PWBs and heating wires in the rear windows of ELVs, the recycling potentials of PMs could be optimally increased to a maximum of 62-83% by 2040.

NdFeB content in ancillary motors of U.S. conventional passenger cars and light trucks: Results from the field

Research into secondary recovery of rare earth elements (REE) has focused mostly on hard disk drives and automotive applications. While REE content in Japanese and European vehicles is relatively well-known, understanding of U.S. vehicles is mostly based on database analysis. An attempt to pinpoint which components contain the most REEs was conducted on four different vehicle models including the Ford F-150, Chevrolet Silverado, Toyota Corolla and Honda Accord. The disassembly data were combined with 2017 vehicles in operation to estimate stocks and flows of Neodymium-Iron-Boron (NdFeB). Results showed that U.S. vehicles had major differences compared to Japanese and European vehicles. NdFeB magnets were only found in speakers ranging from 16 to 114 g/vehicle. An estimated 3.0-14 tonnes of NdFeB could be available from end-of-life vehicles in 2018 from different cohorts of the four aforementioned models. While opportunities for recycling NdFeB in vehicles exist, challenges are also present.