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Lumpkin CJ, Harris AW, Connell AJ, Kirk RW, Whiting JA, Saieva L, Pellizzoni L, Burghes AHM, Butchbach MER. Evaluation of the orally bioavailable 4-phenylbutyrate-tethered trichostatin A analogue AR42 in models of spinal muscular atrophy. Sci Rep 2023; 13:10374. [PMID: 37365234 PMCID: PMC10293174 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-37496-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Proximal spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a leading genetic cause for infant death in the world and results from the selective loss of motor neurons in the spinal cord. SMA is a consequence of low levels of SMN protein and small molecules that can increase SMN expression are of considerable interest as potential therapeutics. Previous studies have shown that both 4-phenylbutyrate (4PBA) and trichostatin A (TSA) increase SMN expression in dermal fibroblasts derived from SMA patients. AR42 is a 4PBA-tethered TSA derivative that is a very potent histone deacetylase inhibitor. SMA patient fibroblasts were treated with either AR42, AR19 (a related analogue), 4PBA, TSA or vehicle for 5 days and then immunostained for SMN localization. AR42 as well as 4PBA and TSA increased the number of SMN-positive nuclear gems in a dose-dependent manner while AR19 did not show marked changes in gem numbers. While gem number was increased in AR42-treated SMA fibroblasts, there were no significant changes in FL-SMN mRNA or SMN protein. The neuroprotective effect of this compound was then assessed in SMNΔ7 SMA (SMN2+/+;SMNΔ7+/+;mSmn-/-) mice. Oral administration of AR42 prior to disease onset increased the average lifespan of SMNΔ7 SMA mice by ~ 27% (20.1 ± 1.6 days for AR42-treated mice vs. 15.8 ± 0.4 days for vehicle-treated mice). AR42 treatment also improved motor function in these mice. AR42 treatment inhibited histone deacetylase (HDAC) activity in treated spinal cord although it did not affect SMN protein expression in these mice. AKT and GSK3β phosphorylation were both significantly increased in SMNΔ7 SMA mouse spinal cords. In conclusion, presymptomatic administration of the HDAC inhibitor AR42 ameliorates the disease phenotype in SMNΔ7 SMA mice in a SMN-independent manner possibly by increasing AKT neuroprotective signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casey J Lumpkin
- Division of Neurology, Nemours Children's Hospital Delaware, 4462 E400 DuPont Experimental Station, 200 Powder Mill Road, Wilmington, DE, 19803, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
| | - Ashlee W Harris
- Division of Neurology, Nemours Children's Hospital Delaware, 4462 E400 DuPont Experimental Station, 200 Powder Mill Road, Wilmington, DE, 19803, USA
| | - Andrew J Connell
- Division of Neurology, Nemours Children's Hospital Delaware, 4462 E400 DuPont Experimental Station, 200 Powder Mill Road, Wilmington, DE, 19803, USA
| | - Ryan W Kirk
- Division of Neurology, Nemours Children's Hospital Delaware, 4462 E400 DuPont Experimental Station, 200 Powder Mill Road, Wilmington, DE, 19803, USA
| | - Joshua A Whiting
- Division of Neurology, Nemours Children's Hospital Delaware, 4462 E400 DuPont Experimental Station, 200 Powder Mill Road, Wilmington, DE, 19803, USA
| | - Luciano Saieva
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Livio Pellizzoni
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Arthur H M Burghes
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Pharmacology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
- Department of Neurology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Matthew E R Butchbach
- Division of Neurology, Nemours Children's Hospital Delaware, 4462 E400 DuPont Experimental Station, 200 Powder Mill Road, Wilmington, DE, 19803, USA.
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA.
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Pharmacology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA.
- Department of Pediatrics, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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2
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Sabuncu Gürses G, Erdem SS, Saçan MT. A QSAR study to predict the survival motor neuron promoter activity of candidate diaminoquinazoline derivatives for the potential treatment of spinal muscular atrophy. SAR AND QSAR IN ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 34:247-266. [PMID: 37125536 DOI: 10.1080/1062936x.2023.2200975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Spinal Muscular Atrophy is a genetic neuromuscular disease that leads to muscle weakness and atrophy and it is characterized by the loss of α-motor neurons in the spinal cord's anterior horn cells. The disease appears due to low levels of the survival motor neuron protein. There are continuing clinical trials for the treatment of Spinal Muscular Atrophy. Quinazoline-based compounds are promising since they were tested on fibroblasts derived from the patients and found to increase the survival motor neuron protein levels. In this study, using multiple linear regression, we generated robust and valid quantitative structure- activity relationship models to predict the survival motor neuron-2 promoter activity of the new candidate compounds using the experimental survival motor neuron-2 promoter activity values of 2,4-diaminoquinazoline derivatives taken from the literature. The novel compounds designed by combining the pyrido[1,2-α]pyrimidin-4-one moeity of the known drug Risdiplam with that of 2,4 - diaminoquinazoline scaffold were predicted to exhibit strong promoter activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Sabuncu Gürses
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - S S Erdem
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - M T Saçan
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Bogaziçi University, Istanbul, Turkey
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3
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Zhang L, Abendroth F, Vázquez O. A Chemical Biology Perspective to Therapeutic Regulation of RNA Splicing in Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA). ACS Chem Biol 2022; 17:1293-1307. [PMID: 35639849 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.2c00161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Manipulation of RNA splicing machinery has emerged as a drug modality. Here, we illustrate the potential of this novel paradigm to correct aberrant splicing events focused on the recent therapeutic advances in spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). SMA is an incurable neuromuscular disorder and at present the primary genetic cause of early infant death. This Review summarizes the exciting journey from the first reported SMA cases to the currently approved splicing-switching treatments, i.e., antisense oligonucleotides and small-molecule modifiers. We emphasize both chemical structures and molecular bases for recognition. We briefly discuss the advantages and disadvantages of these treatments and include the remaining challenges and future directions. Finally, we also predict that these success stories will contribute to further therapies for human diseases by RNA-splicing control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Straße 4, 35043, Marburg, Germany
| | - Frank Abendroth
- Department of Chemistry, University of Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Straße 4, 35043, Marburg, Germany
| | - Olalla Vázquez
- Department of Chemistry, University of Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Straße 4, 35043, Marburg, Germany
- Center for Synthetic Microbiology (SYNMIKRO), University of Marburg, Karl-von-Frisch-Straße 14, 35043 Marburg, Germany
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4
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Liu Y, Li J, Gu Y, Ma L, Cen S, Peng Z, Hu L. Synthesis and structure-activity relationship study of new biaryl amide derivatives and their inhibitory effects against hepatitis C virus. Eur J Med Chem 2022; 228:114033. [PMID: 34883293 PMCID: PMC8648050 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.114033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A series of novel biaryl amide derivatives were synthesized and evaluated for anti-HCV virus activity. Some significant SARs were uncovered. The intensive structural modifications led to fifteen novel compounds with more potent inhibitory activity compared to the hit compounds IMB 26 and IMB1f. Among them, compound 80 was the most active, with EC50 values almost equivalent to the clinical drug telaprevir (EC50 = 15 nM). Furthermore, it also had a good safety and in vitro and oral pharmacokinetic (oral bioavailability in rats: 34%) profile, suggesting a highly drug-like nature. Compound 80represents a more promising scaffold for anti-HCV virus activity for further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonghua Liu
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, PR China.
| | - Jianrui Li
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, PR China
| | - Yuxi Gu
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, PR China
| | - Ling Ma
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, PR China
| | - Shan Cen
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, PR China.
| | - Zonggen Peng
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, PR China.
| | - Laixing Hu
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, PR China.
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5
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Samir Z. Zard
- Laboratoire de Synthèse Organique CNRS UMR 7652 Ecole Polytechnique FR-91128 Palaiseau France
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6
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Foley TL, Burchett W, Chen Q, Flanagan ME, Kapinos B, Li X, Montgomery JI, Ratnayake AS, Zhu H, Peakman MC. Selecting Approaches for Hit Identification and Increasing Options by Building the Efficient Discovery of Actionable Chemical Matter from DNA-Encoded Libraries. SLAS DISCOVERY 2021; 26:263-280. [PMID: 33412987 DOI: 10.1177/2472555220979589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Over the past 20 years, the toolbox for discovering small-molecule therapeutic starting points has expanded considerably. Pharmaceutical researchers can now choose from technologies that, in addition to traditional high-throughput knowledge-based and diversity screening, now include the screening of fragment and fragment-like libraries, affinity selection mass spectrometry, and selection against DNA-encoded libraries (DELs). Each of these techniques has its own unique combination of advantages and limitations that makes them more, or less, suitable for different target classes or discovery objectives, such as desired mechanism of action. Layered on top of this are the constraints of the drug-hunters themselves, including budgets, timelines, and available platform capacity; each of these can play a part in dictating the hit identification strategy for a discovery program. In this article, we discuss some of the factors that we use to govern our building of a hit identification roadmap for a program and describe the increasing role that DELs are playing in our discovery strategy. Furthermore, we share our learning during our initial exploration of DEL and highlight the approaches we have evolved to maximize the value returned from DEL selections. Topics addressed include the optimization of library design and production, reagent validation, data analysis, and hit confirmation. We describe how our thinking in these areas has led us to build a DEL platform that has begun to deliver tractable matter to our global discovery portfolio.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Qiuxia Chen
- Lead Generation Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Shuangliu District, China
| | | | | | - Xianyang Li
- Lead Generation Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Shuangliu District, China
| | | | | | - Hongyao Zhu
- Simulation and Modelling Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Groton, CT, USA
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7
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Rietz A, Hodgetts KJ, Lusic H, Quist KM, Osman EY, Lorson CL, Androphy EJ. Short-duration splice promoting compound enables a tunable mouse model of spinal muscular atrophy. Life Sci Alliance 2020; 4:4/1/e202000889. [PMID: 33234679 PMCID: PMC7723287 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202000889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe drug treatment paradigms that allow investigation of cellular and molecular pathogenesis at different stages of spinal muscular atrophy in a mouse model. Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a motor neuron disease and the leading genetic cause of infant mortality. SMA results from insufficient survival motor neuron (SMN) protein due to alternative splicing. Antisense oligonucleotides, gene therapy and splicing modifiers recently received FDA approval. Although severe SMA transgenic mouse models have been beneficial for testing therapeutic efficacy, models mimicking milder cases that manifest post-infancy have proven challenging to develop. We established a titratable model of mild and moderate SMA using the splicing compound NVS-SM2. Administration for 30 d prevented development of the SMA phenotype in severe SMA mice, which typically show rapid weakness and succumb by postnatal day 11. Furthermore, administration at day eight resulted in phenotypic recovery. Remarkably, acute dosing limited to the first 3 d of life significantly enhanced survival in two severe SMA mice models, easing the burden on neonates and demonstrating the compound as suitable for evaluation of follow-on therapies without potential drug–drug interactions. This pharmacologically tunable SMA model represents a useful tool to investigate cellular and molecular pathogenesis at different stages of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Rietz
- Department of Dermatology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Kevin J Hodgetts
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Hrvoje Lusic
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Kevin M Quist
- Department of Dermatology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Erkan Y Osman
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Bond Life Sciences Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Christian L Lorson
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Bond Life Sciences Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Elliot J Androphy
- Department of Dermatology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
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8
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Kamlah A, Bracher F. A Novel Approach to Highly Substituted β‐Carbolines via Reductive Ring Transformation of 2‐Acyl‐3‐isoxazolylindoles. European J Org Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.202000230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Kamlah
- Department of Pharmacy Center for Drug Research Ludwig‐Maximilians University Butenandtstr. 5‐13 81377 Munich Germany
| | - Franz Bracher
- Department of Pharmacy Center for Drug Research Ludwig‐Maximilians University Butenandtstr. 5‐13 81377 Munich Germany
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9
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Singh P, Dalal A, Babu SA. Palladium(II)‐Catalyzed Sp
3
/Sp
2
γ
‐ and
δ
‐C‐H Functionalization of Aryl Amines using 5‐Methylisoxazole‐3‐Carboxamide as Directing Group. ASIAN J ORG CHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ajoc.201900132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Prabhakar Singh
- Department of Chemical SciencesIndian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Mohali Knowledge City, Sector 81, SAS Nagar, Mohali, Manauli P.O. Punjab 140306 India
| | - Arup Dalal
- Department of Chemical SciencesIndian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Mohali Knowledge City, Sector 81, SAS Nagar, Mohali, Manauli P.O. Punjab 140306 India
| | - Srinivasarao Arulananda Babu
- Department of Chemical SciencesIndian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Mohali Knowledge City, Sector 81, SAS Nagar, Mohali, Manauli P.O. Punjab 140306 India
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10
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Intraperitoneal delivery of a novel drug-like compound improves disease severity in severe and intermediate mouse models of Spinal Muscular Atrophy. Sci Rep 2019; 9:1633. [PMID: 30733501 PMCID: PMC6367425 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-38208-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder that causes progressive muscle weakness and is the leading genetic cause of infant mortality worldwide. SMA is caused by the loss of survival motor neuron 1 (SMN1). In humans, a nearly identical copy gene is present, called SMN2. Although SMN2 maintains the same coding sequence, this gene cannot compensate for the loss of SMN1 because of a single silent nucleotide difference in SMN2 exon 7. SMN2 primarily produces an alternatively spliced isoform lacking exon 7, which is critical for protein function. SMN2 is an important disease modifier that makes for an excellent target for therapeutic intervention because all SMA patients retain SMN2. Therefore, compounds and small molecules that can increase SMN2 exon 7 inclusion, transcription and SMN protein stability have great potential for SMA therapeutics. Previously, we performed a high throughput screen and established a class of compounds that increase SMN protein in various cellular contexts. In this study, a novel compound was identified that increased SMN protein levels in vivo and ameliorated the disease phenotype in severe and intermediate mouse models of SMA.
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11
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Leng J, Qin HL. 1-Bromoethene-1-sulfonyl fluoride (1-Br-ESF), a new SuFEx clickable reagent, and its application for regioselective construction of 5-sulfonylfluoro isoxazoles. Chem Commun (Camb) 2018; 54:4477-4480. [PMID: 29658035 DOI: 10.1039/c8cc00986d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A new fluorosulfonylation reagent 1-bromoethene-1-sulfonyl fluoride was developed (1-Br-ESF). This unique reagent possesses three addressable handles (vinyl, bromide, and sulfonyl fluoride) and has great potential to function as a tris-electrophile and as a sulfur(vi) fluoride exchange (SuFEx) clickable material to enrich the SuFEx tool cabinet. The application of this reagent for regioselective synthesis of 5-sulfonylfluoro isoxazoles has been realized through a [3+2] cycloaddition with N-hydroxybenzimidoyl chlorides. This practical protocol provides a general and direct route to functionalized isoxazoles possessing sulfonyl fluoride moieties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Leng
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Life Science, and State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures Wuhan University of Technology, 205 Luoshi Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province 430070, P. R. China.
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12
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Choi S, Calder AN, Miller EH, Anderson KP, Fiejtek DK, Rietz A, Li H, Cherry JJ, Quist KM, Xing X, Glicksman MA, Cuny GD, Lorson CL, Androphy EA, Hodgetts KJ. Optimization of a series of heterocycles as survival motor neuron gene transcription enhancers. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2017; 27:5144-5148. [PMID: 29103974 PMCID: PMC5701662 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2017.10.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2017] [Revised: 10/22/2017] [Accepted: 10/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a neurodegenerative disorder that results from mutations in the SMN1 gene, leading to survival motor neuron (SMN) protein deficiency. One therapeutic strategy for SMA is to identify compounds that enhance the expression of the SMN2 gene, which normally only is a minor contributor to functional SMN protein production, but which is unaffected in SMA. A recent high-throughput screening campaign identified a 3,4-dihydro-4-phenyl-2(1H)-quinolinone derivative (2) that increases the expression of SMN2 by 2-fold with an EC50 = 8.3 µM. A structure-activity relationship (SAR) study revealed that the array of tolerated substituents, on either the benzo portion of the quinolinone or the 4-phenyl, was very narrow. However, the lactam ring of the quinolinone was more amenable to modifications. For example, the quinazolinone (9a) and the benzoxazepin-2(3H)-one (19) demonstrated improved potency and efficacy for increase in SMN2 expression as compared to 2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sungwoon Choi
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 65 Landsdowne Street, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Alyssa N Calder
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 65 Landsdowne Street, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Eliza H Miller
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 65 Landsdowne Street, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Kierstyn P Anderson
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 65 Landsdowne Street, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Dawid K Fiejtek
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 65 Landsdowne Street, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Anne Rietz
- Department of Dermatology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Hongxia Li
- Department of Dermatology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Jonathan J Cherry
- Department of Dermatology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Kevin M Quist
- Department of Dermatology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Xuechao Xing
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 65 Landsdowne Street, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Marcie A Glicksman
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 65 Landsdowne Street, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Gregory D Cuny
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 65 Landsdowne Street, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Christian L Lorson
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Elliot A Androphy
- Department of Dermatology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Kevin J Hodgetts
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 65 Landsdowne Street, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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