Proton-Transfer-Based Azides with Fluorescence Off–On Response for Detection of Hydrogen Sulfide: An Experimental, Theoretical, and Bioimaging Study

Substituent-induced modulation of competing dual-acceptor hydrogen bond in ESIPT-type HBT derivatives

The 2-(2'-hydroxyphenyl) benzothiazole derivatives (HBT-R) featuring a dual-acceptor hydrogen bond (H-bond) have attracted our attention due to their unique structure and potential applications. There are two distinct acceptor sites located on either side of the central H-bond donor, thereby giving rise to the formation of inter-acceptor competition. In this study, quantum chemical calculations are employed to elucidate that substituents possessing distinct electronic properties modulate H-bond orientations, photophysical characteristics, and excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) in a dual-acceptor H-bond system. The origins of the competition in H-bonds and their effect on the distinct photophysical phenomena were revealed. The relaxed potential energy curves and molecular dynamics conducted for HBT-R indicate that electron-donating groups improve the efficiency of the ESIPT process in molecules with O-H···N H-bond. However, these groups hinder the ESIPT process in molecules with an opposite H-bond orientation. This work is expected to provide comprehensive insights into the mechanisms of substituent-induced modulation of competing dual-acceptor H-bond to inspire the design of more advanced luminescent materials.

Chiral Oxazoline-Triazole-Benzothiazole Molecular Triads: Photoactive Sensors for Enantioselective Carbohydrate Recognition in Solution

Understanding the mechanism of drug action in biological systems is facilitated by the interactions between small molecules and target chiral biomolecules. In this context, focusing on the enantiomeric recognition of carbohydrates in solution through steady-state fluorescence emission spectroscopy is noteworthy. To this end, we have developed a third generation of chiral optical sensors for carbohydrates, distinct from all of those previously presented, which interact with carbohydrates to form non-covalent probe-analyte interactions. The proposed sensor is based on 2-oxazolines bearing a fluorophoric benzothiazole unit. We evaluated their photophysical properties in the presence of enantiomeric pairs of arabinose, mannose, xylose, and glucose in solution. Our primary findings indicate that the compounds outlined in this study were able to distinguish between enantiomeric pairs in solution, demonstrating good to excellent enantioselectivity through simple intermolecular interactions. To achieve the best enantioselectivity results, theoretical calculations were performed to better understand the observed interactions between the sensors and the analytes.

Theoretical study on the luminescent and reaction mechanism of dansyl-based fluorescence probe for detecting hydrogen sulfide

The photophysical and photochemical properties of the sulfonyl azide-based fluorescent probe DNS-Az and its reduction product DNS by hydrogen sulfide (H2S) have been investigated theoretically. The calculated results indicated the first excited states of DNS-Az was dark state (oscillator strength less than 0.03) and DNS was bright state (oscillator strength more than 0.1), which determined the predicted radiative rate kr of DNS-Az was much smaller than that of DNS, meanwhile, due to more larger reorganization energy of DNS-Az, its predicted internal conversion rate kic was four times larger than that of DNS; moreover, owing to the effect of heavy atom from sulfur atom in DNS-Az, its predicted intersystem crossing rate kisc was seven times larger than that of DNS, thus the calculated fluorescence quantum yield of DNS-Az was only 2.16% and that of DNS was more than 77.2%, the above factors is the basis for DNS-Az molecule to function as a fluorescent probe. Regarding both DNS-Az and DNS molecules, their maximum Huang-Rhys factors, which are less than unity, signify the reliability of 0-0 transitions between their S0 and S1 electronic states. In addition, for DNS, our simulated emission peak of the 0-0 transition is 515 nm, a value that exhibits enhanced accuracy and coherence when compared to the experimental datum of 528 nm. The reaction mechanism of DNS-Az generating DNS by H2S has been investigated too, according to the potential energy profile, we found that the fluorescent probe firstly protonated, then this organic ion broke down into DNS with the aid of a proton.

Synthesis and Excited State Proton Transfer (ESPT) Studies of 2-(6-Substitutedbenzo[d]Thiazol-2-Yl)Naphthalen-1-Ol Derivatives

This study reports the rapid intramolecular proton transfer studies upon photo excitation of 2-(benzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)naphthalene-1-ol derivatives, yielding tautomer emission with large Stokes shift. Employing photophysical studies, density functional theory (DFT) and, time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) methods, we scrutinize excited state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) modulation over varying solvent polarities. Analysis of UV-Visible and fluorescence spectra, alongside exploration of hydrogen bond dynamics, reveals solvation effects on the excited state proton transfer process. Theoretical vibrational spectra confirm enhanced hydrogen bond strength in the excited state which is sensitive to the solvent polarity. Energy profile curves and the scatter graph depict impact of solvent polarity on ESIPT. Additionally, molecular interactions and X-ray diffraction studies of the title compound 4a are presented.

Activity-Based Fluorescent Probes for Hydrogen Sulfide and Related Reactive Sulfur Species

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is not only a well-established toxic gas but also an important small molecule bioregulator in all kingdoms of life. In contemporary biology, H2S is often classified as a "gasotransmitter," meaning that it is an endogenously produced membrane permeable gas that carries out essential cellular processes. Fluorescent probes for H2S and related reactive sulfur species (RSS) detection provide an important cornerstone for investigating the multifaceted roles of these important small molecules in complex biological systems. A now common approach to develop such tools is to develop "activity-based probes" that couple a specific H2S-mediated chemical reaction to a fluorescent output. This Review covers the different types of such probes and also highlights the chemical mechanisms by which each probe type is activated by specific RSS. Common examples include reduction of oxidized nitrogen motifs, disulfide exchange, electrophilic reactions, metal precipitation, and metal coordination. In addition, we also outline complementary activity-based probes for imaging reductant-labile and sulfane sulfur species, including persulfides and polysulfides. For probes highlighted in this Review, we focus on small molecule systems with demonstrated compatibility in cellular systems or related applications. Building from breadth of reported activity-based strategies and application, we also highlight key unmet challenges and future opportunities for advancing activity-based probes for H2S and related RSS.

Development of fluorescent probes with specific recognition moiety for hydrogen polysulfide

Hydrogen polysulfide (H2Sn, n > 1) is an important component of reactive sulfur species (RSS), which is an important substance for maintaining the redox balance in cells. However, limited recognition moieties are available for hydrogen polysulfide probe design. In this study, we have constructed a small library containing several organic molecules to explore a new specific recognition moiety for H2Sn fluorescent probe design. To validate the discovery, two fluorescent probes, 7 and BCC, were further developed based on coumarin and its derivative. The probes exhibited desirable specificity for H2Sn monitoring, which can be used for detecting H2Sn in solution and cells. The new specific recognition moiety for H2Sn fluorescent probe design discovered in this work has certain guiding significance for development of H2Sn probes exploring biological roles in the future.

Photoactive glycoconjugates with a very large Stokes shift: synthesis, photophysics, and copper(II) and BSA sensing

This study presents the synthesis of novel glycoconjugates by connecting benzazole and carbohydrate units with a 1,2,3-triazole linker. A simple synthetic route employing a copper(I) catalyzed azide-alkyne 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition (CuAAC) was utilized. The synthesized compounds exhibit excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT), resulting in longer wavelength emission with a significantly large Stokes shift (∼10 000 cm-1). These compounds show potential as chemical sensors due to their ability to detect Cu2+ ions, causing a decrease in fluorescence emission (turn-off effect). Additionally, they demonstrate strong interaction with proteins, exemplified by their interaction with bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a model protein.

Unveiling and regulating the solvent-polarity-associated excited state intramolecular double proton transfer behavior for 1-bis(benzothiazolyl)naphthalene-diol fluorophore

Inspired by the regulatory luminescence properties of HBT derivatives, in this work, we mainly conduct a detailed theoretical exploration on the photoinduced excitation behavior of a novel di-proton-transfer type HBT derivative 1-bis(benzothiazolyl)naphthalene-diol (1-BBTND). The intramolecular double hydrogen bonding interaction and the excited state intramolecular double proton transfer (ESDPT) behavior of 1-BBTND fluorophore are investigated in combination with different polar solvent environments. From the structural changes and charge recombination induced by photoexcitation, we can conclude that strong polar solvent environment promotes the excited state dynamical reaction for 1-BBTND compound. By constructing potential energy surfaces (PESs) in S₀ and S₁ states, we clarify that 1-BBTND fluorophore should undergo a stepwise ESDPT reaction after photoexcitation. Combined with the size of potential energy barriers along with reaction paths in different solvents, we finally propose a new solvent-polarity-dependent stepwise ESDPT for 1-BBTND fluorophore.

ESIPT-based benzazole-pyromellitic diimide derivatives. A thermal, electrochemical, and photochemical investigation

This study describes the synthesis of new pyromellitic diimide (PMDI) derivatives obtained in good yields from the reaction between pyromellitic dianhydride and aminobenzazoles reactive to proton-transfer in the excited state (ESIPT). In this investigation, a non-ESIPT PMDI was also prepared for comparison. These compounds presented absorption maxima in the ultraviolet region attributed to the allowed ¹π-π* electronic transitions. Redshifted absorptions were observed for the ESIPT compounds (3b-3c) due to their π-extended conjugation if compared to the non-ESIPT dye (3a). The compounds presented fluorescence emissions between 300 and 600 nm, dependent on the solvent polarity and their chemical structures. While compound 3a presents a single emission, a dual fluorescence could be observed for compounds 3b-3c. As expected for ESIPT compounds, the emission at higher energies could be related to the excited enol conformer (E*), and the emission with a large Stokes shift was attributed to the keto tautomer (K*). All compounds presented fluorescence emission in the solid state, whereas the ESIPT derivatives presented redshifted emissions with a large Stokes shift, as expected. Cyclic voltammetry was employed to investigate the electrochemical properties of these compounds. The HOMO and LUMO energy levels were estimated at -5.40 to -5.00 eV and -2.84 to -2.62 eV, and good thermal stability (T_d > 150 °C) was observed. Quantum chemical calculationsusingTD-DFT and DFT were performed to investigate the electronic and photophysical features of the molecules.

Synthesis and application of the fluorescent furan and imidazole probes for selective in vivo and in vitro cancer cell imaging

Development of imaging probes for identification of tumors in the early stages of growth can significantly reduce the tumor-related health hazards and improve our capacity for treatment of cancer. In this work, three different furan and imidazole fluorescent derivatives abbreviated as Cyclo X, SAC and SNO are introduced for in vivo and in vitro imaging of cancer cells. The fluorescence quantum yield values were 0.226, 0.400 and 0.479 for Cyclo X, SAC and SNO, respectively. The excitation and emission wavelengths of maximum intensity were (360, 452), (350, 428) and (350, 432) nm for Cyclo X, SAC and SNO, respectively. The MTT reduction assay was used to estimate the cytotoxic activity of the proposed derivatives against HT-29 (cancer) and Vero (normal) cell lines. Cyclo X showed no cytotoxic effect, while SAC and SNO showed significantly higher cytotoxicity against the tested cell lines than cisplatin as a well-known anticancer drug. In vitro fluorescence microscopic images obtained using HT-29 cells showed that Cyclo X produced very bright images. The in vivo cancer cell imaging using 4T1 tumor-bearing mice revealed that Cyclo X is selectively accumulated in the tumor without distribution in the mice body organs. The spectral and structural stability, large Stokes shift, non-cytotoxicity and high level of selectivity for in vivo imaging are properties that make Cyclo X a suitable candidate to be used for long-term monitoring of cancer cells.

Fluorescent probes and functional materials for biomedical applications

Due to their simplicity in preparation, sensitivity and selectivity, fluorescent probes have become the analytical tool of choice in a wide range of research and industrial fields, facilitating the rapid detection of chemical substances of interest as well as the study of important physiological and pathological processes at the cellular level. In addition, many long-wavelength fluorescent probes developed have also proven applicable for in vivo biomedical applications including fluorescence-guided disease diagnosis and theranostics (e.g., fluorogenic prodrugs). Impressive progresses have been made in the development of sensing agents and materials for the detection of ions, organic small molecules, and biomacromolecules including enzymes, DNAs/RNAs, lipids, and carbohydrates that play crucial roles in biological and disease-relevant events. Here, we highlight examples of fluorescent probes and functional materials for biological applications selected from the special issues “Fluorescent Probes” and “Molecular Sensors and Logic Gates” recently published in this journal, offering insights into the future development of powerful fluorescence-based chemical tools for basic biological studies and clinical translation.

Theoretical Study on the Atom-Substituted Quinazoline Derivatives with Faint Emission as Potential Sunscreens

Two novel compounds (HQS and HQSe) with excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) properties were designed based on the compound 2-(2-hydroxy-3-ethoxyphenyl)-3H-quinazolin-4-one (HQ). The parameters related to the ESIPT properties and electronic spectra of HQ and its derivatives were calculated using density functional theory and time-dependent density functional theory methods. The obtained geometric configurations, infrared vibrational spectra, and reduced density gradient scatter plots have shown that the intramolecular hydrogen bond O₁···H₁-N₁ has been weakened upon photoexcitation. Moreover, from the scanned potential energy curves, it can be found that the ESIPT processes of the three compounds have no energy barriers. It is noteworthy that HQS and HQSe can strongly absorb light in the UVA region (∼340 nm) and exhibit weak fluorescence emission in the visible light region, which comes from the keto configuration. The special optical properties of HQS and HQSe can promote their application as potential sunscreen agents.

Interaction Study between ESIPT Fluorescent Lipophile-Based Benzazoles and BSA

In this study, the interactions of ESIPT fluorescent lipophile-based benzazoles with bovine serum albumin (BSA) were studied and their binding affinity was evaluated. In phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution these compounds produce absorption maxima in the UV region and a main fluorescence emission with a large Stokes shift in the blue–green regions due to a proton transfer process in the excited state. The interactions of the benzazoles with BSA were studied using UV-Vis absorption and steady-state fluorescence spectroscopy. The observed spectral quenching of BSA indicates that these compounds could bind to BSA through a strong binding affinity afforded by a static quenching mechanism (K_q~10¹² L·mol⁻¹·s⁻¹). The docking simulations indicate that compounds 13 and 16 bind closely to Trp134 in domain I, adopting similar binding poses and interactions. On the other hand, compounds 12, 14, 15, and 17 were bound between domains I and III and did not directly interact with Trp134.

Fluorescent Benzothiadiazole Derivatives as Fluorescence Imaging Dyes: A Decade of New Generation Probes

The current review describes advances in the use of fluorescent 2,1,3-benzothiadiazole (BTD) derivatives after nearly one decade since the first description of bioimaging experiments using this class of fluorogenic dyes. The review describes the use of BTD-containing fluorophores applied as, inter alia, bioprobes for imaging cell nuclei, mitochondria, lipid droplets, sensors, markers for proteins and related events, biological processes and activities, lysosomes, plasma membranes, multicellular models, and animals. A number of physicochemical and photophysical properties commonly observed for BTD fluorogenic structures are also described.

The mechanism of phase transitions and luminescence properties of azide perovskites

The temperature-dependent IR and Raman spectroscopy has been used to study the phase transitions in Na/K-chromium-azide frameworks with tetramethylammonium (TeMA⁺) cations, [(CH₃)₄N]₂[NaCr(N₃)₆] and [(CH₃)₄N]₂[KCr(N₃)₆], which crystallize in a perovskite-like structure. The phase transition occurring within 310-315 K in both compounds leads to a symmetry change from Pa-3 to Fm-3m and its major contributor is an order-disorder process of the organic cations followed by an adjustment of the azide bridges. The luminescence properties arise from the optically active Cr³⁺ ions and the studies reveal some admixture of low-symmetry component of the octahedral crystal environment of the Cr³⁺ sites.

Cyano Derivatives of 7-Aminoquinoline That Are Highly Emissive in Water: Potential for Sensing Applications

6-Cyano-7-aminoquinoline (6CN-7AQ) and 3-cyano-7-aminoquinoline (3CN-7AQ) were synthesized and found to exhibit intense emission with quantum yield as high as 63 % and 85 %, respectively, in water. Conversely, their derivatives 6-cyano-7-azidoquinoline (6CN-7N₃ Q) and 3-cyano-7-azidoquinoline (3CN-7N₃ Q) show virtually no emission, which makes them suitable to be used as recognition agents in azide reactions based on fluorescence recovery. Moreover, conjugation of 6CN-7AQ with a hydrophobic biomembrane-penetration peptide PFVYLI renders a nearly non-emissive 6CN-7AQ-PFVYLI composite, which can be digested by proteinase K, recovering the highly emissive 6CN-7AQ with ∼200-fold enhancement. The result provides an effective early confirmation for RT-qPCR in viral detection.

Substituent effect on ESIPT mechanisms and photophysical properties of HBT derivatives

Substituent effects on excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) and photophysical properties of 2-(2-Hydroxyphenyl) benzothiazole (HBT) derivatives have been theoretically unveiled via the density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT (TDDFT). The optimized geometrical configurations and normal mode analyses confirm that the proton transfer processes are more reactive in excited state. Through calculating the activation energies and rate constants of ESIPT processes, finding that the processes are increasingly inactive when substituent group changes from -CN, -CO₂Me, -Cl, -Me, -NMe₂ to -NO₂. In addition, the photophysical properties analyses indicate the vertical transition energies are in good agreement with those observed in experiment. Note that all the absorption and emission maxima of enol and keto forms have the significant red-shift. In order to clarify the substituent effect on ESIPT and photophysical properties, we draw the frontier molecular orbitals (FMOs) isosurfaces and calculate the distances of electrons and holes and atomic charges. It follows that the intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) degrees are increasingly enlarged as substituting from -CN, -CO₂Me, -Cl, -Me, -NMe₂ to -NO₂ groups, which not only causes the red-shift of absorption and emission of enol and keto forms, but also affects the charge distribution of proton donor and acceptor, inhibiting the occurrence of ESIPT processes.

Nanomolar Detection of H2S in an Aqueous Medium: Application in Endogenous and Exogenous Imaging of HeLa Cells and Zebrafish

The homeostasis of short-lived reactive species such as hydrogen sulfide/hypochlorous acid (H2S/HOCl) in biological systems is essential for maintaining intercellular balance. An unchecked increase in biological H2S concentrations impedes homeostasis. In this report, we present a molecular probe pyrene-based sulfonyl hydrazone derived from pyrene for the selective detection of H2S endogenously as well as exogenously through a "turn-off" response in water. The structure of the receptor is confirmed by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, and single-crystal X-ray diffraction studies. The receptor shows excellent green emission in both the aqueous phase and solid state. Quenching of green emission of the receptor is observed only when H2S is present in water with a detection limit of 18 nM. Other competing anions and cations do not have any influence on the receptor's optical properties. The efficiency of H2S detection is not negatively impacted by other reactive sulfur species too. The sensing mechanism of H2S follows a chemodosimetric reductive elimination of sulfur dioxide, which is supported by product isolation. The receptor is found to be biocompatible, as evident by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay, and its utility is extended to endogenous and exogenous fluorescence imaging of HeLa cells and zebrafish.

Naphthalimide based smart sensor for CN−/Fe3+ and H2S. Synthesis and application in RAW264.7 cells and zebrafish imaging

Probe R designed as tailor-fit triple action smart chemosensor for the sequential detection of CN⁻ and Fe³⁺via colorimetric and fluorometric ‘on–off’ method and H₂S through colorimetric method in semi-aqueous conditions.

Hybrid 3,4-dihydropyrimidin-2-(thi)ones as dual-functional bioactive molecules: fluorescent probes and cytotoxic agents to cancer cells

A series of new hybrid fluorescent Biginelli compounds, including a Monastrol derivative, were designed and synthesized with good yields.