Disassembly of TEMPO-Oxidized Cellulose Fibers: Intersheet and Interchain Interactions in the Isolation of Nanofibers and Unitary Chains

The role of glycerol in manufacturing freeze-dried chitosan and cellulose foams for mechanically stable scaffolds in skin tissue engineering

Various strategies have extensively explored enhancing the physical and biological properties of chitosan and cellulose scaffolds for skin tissue engineering. This study presents a straightforward method involving the addition of glycerol into highly porous structures of two polysaccharide complexes: chitosan/carboxymethyl cellulose (Chit/CMC) and chitosan/oxidized cellulose (Chit/OC); during a one-step freeze-drying process. Adding glycerol, especially to Chit/CMC, significantly increased stability, prevented degradation, and improved mechanical strength by nearly 50%. Importantly, after 21 days of incubation in enzymatic medium Chit/CMC scaffold has almost completely decomposed, while foams reinforced with glycerol exhibited only 40% mass loss. It is possible due to differences in multivalent cations and polymer chain contraction, resulting in varied hydrogen bonding and, consequently, distinct physicochemical outcomes. Additionally, the scaffolds with glycerol improved the cellular activities resulting in over 40% higher proliferation of fibroblast after 21 days of incubation. It was achieved by imparting water resistance to the highly absorbent material and aiding in achieving a balance between hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties. This study clearly indicates the possible elimination of additional crosslinkers and multiple fabrication steps that can reduce the cost of scaffold production for skin tissue engineering applications while tailoring mechanical strength and degradation.

Reversible Surface Engineering of Cellulose Elementary Fibrils: From Ultralong Nanocelluloses to Advanced Cellulosic Materials

Cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) are supramolecular assemblies of cellulose chains that provide outstanding mechanical support and structural functions for cellulosic organisms. However, traditional chemical pretreatments and mechanical defibrillation of natural cellulose produce irreversible surface functionalization and adverse effects of morphology of the CNFs, respectively, which limit the utilization of CNFs in nanoassembly and surface functionalization. Herein, this work presents a facile and energetically efficient surface engineering strategy to completely exfoliate cellulose elementary fibrils from various bioresources, which provides CNFs with ultrahigh aspect ratios (≈1400) and reversible surface. During the mild process of swelling and esterification, the crystallinity and the morphology of the elementary fibrils are retained, resulting in high yields (98%) with low energy consumption (12.4 kJ g-1). In particular, on the CNF surface, the surface hydroxyl groups are restored by removal of the carboxyl moieties via saponification, which offers a significant opportunity for reconstitution of stronger hydrogen bonding interfaces. Therefore, the resultant CNFs can be used as sustainable building blocks for construction of multidimensional advanced cellulosic materials, e.g., 1D filaments, 2D films, and 3D aerogels. The proposed surface engineering strategy provides a new platform for fully utilizing the characteristics of the cellulose elementary fibrils in the development of high-performance cellulosic materials.

From Forces to Assemblies: van der Waals Forces-Driven Assemblies in Anisotropic Quasi-2D Graphene and Quasi-1D Nanocellulose Heterointerfaces towards Quasi-3D Nanoarchitecture

In the pursuit of advanced functional materials, the role of low-dimensional van der Waals (vdW) heterointerfaces has recently ignited noteworthy scientific interest, particularly in assemblies that incorporate quasi-2D graphene and quasi-1D nanocellulose derivatives. The growing interest predominantly stems from the potential to fabricate distinct genres of quasi-2D/1D nanoarchitecture governed by vdW forces. Despite the possibilities, the inherent properties of these nanoscale entities are limited by in-plane covalent bonding and the existence of dangling π-bonds, constraints that inhibit emergent behavior at heterointerfaces. An innovative response to these limitations proposes a mechanism that binds multilayered quasi-2D nanosheets with quasi-1D nanochains, capitalizing on out-of-plane non-covalent interactions. The approach facilitates the generation of dangling bond-free iso-surfaces and promotes the functionalization of multilayered materials with exceptional properties. However, a gap still persists in understanding transition and alignment mechanisms in disordered multilayered structures, despite the extensive exploration of monolayer and asymmetric bilayer arrangements. In this perspective, we comprehensively review the sophisticated aspects of multidimensional vdW heterointerfaces composed of quasi-2D/1D graphene and nanocellulose derivatives. Further, we discuss the profound impacts of anisotropy nature and geometric configurations, including in-plane and out-of-plane dynamics on multiscale vdW heterointerfaces. Ultimately, we shed light on the emerging prospects and challenges linked to constructing advanced functional materials in the burgeoning domain of quasi-3D nanoarchitecture.

Nanoscale structural and electronic properties of cellulose/graphene interfaces

The development of electronic devices based on the functionalization of (nano)cellulose platforms relies upon an atomistic understanding of the structural and electronic properties of a combined system, cellulose/functional element. In this work, we present a theoretical study of the nanocellulose/graphene interfaces (nCL/G) based on first-principles calculations. We find that the binding energies of both hydrophobic/G (nCL^phob/G) and hydrophilic/G (nCL^phil/G) interfaces are primarily dictated by the van der Waals interactions, and are comparable with those of their 2D interface counterparts. We verify that the energetic preference of nCL^phob/G has been reinforced by the inclusion of an aqueous medium via an implicit solvation model. Further structural characterization was carried out using a set of simulations of the carbon K-edge X-ray absorption spectra to identify and distinguish the key absorption features of the nCL^phob/G and nCL^phil/G interfaces. The electronic structure calculations reveal that the linear energy bands of graphene lie in the band gap of the nCL sheet, while depletion/accumulation charge density regions are observed. We show that external agents, i.e., electric field and mechanical strain, allow for tunability of the Dirac cone and charge density at the interface. The control/maintenance of the Dirac cone states in nCL/G is an important feature for the development of electronic devices based on cellulosic platforms.

How lignin sticks to cellulose-insights from atomic force microscopy enhanced by machine-learning analysis and molecular dynamics simulations

Elucidating cellulose-lignin interactions at the molecular and nanometric scales is an important research topic with impacts on several pathways of biomass valorization. Here, the interaction forces between a cellulosic substrate and lignin are investigated. Atomic force microscopy with lignin-coated tips is employed to probe the site-specific adhesion to a cellulose film in liquid water. Over seven thousand force-curves are analyzed by a machine-learning approach to cluster the experimental data into types of cellulose-tip interactions. The molecular mechanisms for distinct types of cellulose-lignin interactions are revealed by molecular dynamics simulations of lignin globules interacting with different cellulose Iβ crystal facets. This unique combination of experimental force-curves, data-driven analysis, and molecular simulations opens a new approach of investigation and updates the understanding of cellulose-lignin interactions at the nanoscale.