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Serra M, Simola N, Pollack AE, Costa G. Brain dysfunctions and neurotoxicity induced by psychostimulants in experimental models and humans: an overview of recent findings. Neural Regen Res 2024; 19:1908-1918. [PMID: 38227515 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.390971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Preclinical and clinical studies indicate that psychostimulants, in addition to having abuse potential, may elicit brain dysfunctions and/or neurotoxic effects. Central toxicity induced by psychostimulants may pose serious health risks since the recreational use of these substances is on the rise among young people and adults. The present review provides an overview of recent research, conducted between 2018 and 2023, focusing on brain dysfunctions and neurotoxic effects elicited in experimental models and humans by amphetamine, cocaine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, methylphenidate, caffeine, and nicotine. Detailed elucidation of factors and mechanisms that underlie psychostimulant-induced brain dysfunction and neurotoxicity is crucial for understanding the acute and enduring noxious brain effects that may occur in individuals who use psychostimulants for recreational and/or therapeutic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcello Serra
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Neuroscience, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Nicola Simola
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Neuroscience, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Alexia E Pollack
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts-Boston, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Giulia Costa
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Neuroscience, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
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2
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Coray RC, Berberat J, Zimmermann J, Seifritz E, Stock AK, Beste C, Cole DM, Unschuld PG, Quednow BB. Striatal Iron Deposition in Recreational MDMA (Ecstasy) Users. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2023; 8:956-966. [PMID: 36848948 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2023.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The common club drug MDMA (also known as ecstasy) enhances mood, sensory perception, energy, sociability, and euphoria. While MDMA has been shown to produce neurotoxicity in animal models, research on its potential neurotoxic effects in humans is inconclusive and has focused primarily on the serotonin system. METHODS We investigated 34 regular, largely pure MDMA users for signs of premature neurodegenerative processes in the form of increased iron load in comparison to a group of 36 age-, sex-, and education-matched MDMA-naïve control subjects. We used quantitative susceptibility mapping, a novel tool able to detect even small tissue (nonheme) iron accumulations. Cortical and relevant subcortical gray matter structures were grouped into 8 regions of interest and analyzed. RESULTS Significantly increased iron deposition in the striatum was evident in the MDMA user group. The effect survived correction for multiple comparisons and remained after controlling for relevant confounding factors, including age, smoking, and stimulant co-use. Although no significant linear relationship between measurements of the amounts of MDMA intake (hair analysis and self-reports) and quantitative susceptibility mapping values was observed, increased striatal iron deposition might nevertheless point to MDMA-induced neurotoxic processes. Additional factors (hyperthermia and simultaneous co-use of other substances) that possibly amplify neurotoxic effects of MDMA during the state of acute intoxication are discussed. CONCLUSIONS The demonstrated increased striatal iron accumulation may indicate that regular MDMA users have an increased risk potential for neurodegenerative diseases with progressing age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca C Coray
- Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Neuroscience Center Zurich, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Jatta Berberat
- Geriatric Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, University Hospitals of Geneva, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland; Institute of Neuroradiology, Kantonsspital Aarau, Aarau, Switzerland
| | - Josua Zimmermann
- Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Neuroscience Center Zurich, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Erich Seifritz
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ann-Kathrin Stock
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Christian Beste
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - David M Cole
- Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Neuroscience Center Zurich, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Translational Psychiatry Lab, University Psychiatric Clinics Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Paul G Unschuld
- Geriatric Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, University Hospitals of Geneva, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Boris B Quednow
- Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Neuroscience Center Zurich, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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3
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Costa G, Gołembiowska K. Neurotoxicity of MDMA: Main effects and mechanisms. Exp Neurol 2021; 347:113894. [PMID: 34655576 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Preclinical and clinical studies indicate that 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; 'ecstasy'), in addition to having abuse potential, may elicit acute and persistent abnormalities of varying severity at the central level. Importantly, neurotoxic effects of MDMA have been demonstrated in experimental animals. Accordingly, central toxicity induced by MDMA may pose a serious harm for health, since MDMA is among the substances that are used for recreational purposes by young and adult people. This review provides a concise overview of recent findings from preclinical and clinical studies that evaluated the central effects of MDMA, and the mechanisms involved in the neurotoxicity induced by this amphetamine-related drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Costa
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Neuroscience, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy.
| | - Krystyna Gołembiowska
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, 12 Smętna, 31-343 Kraków, Poland
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4
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Steuer AE, Raeber J, Simbuerger F, Dornbierer DA, Bosch OG, Quednow BB, Seifritz E, Kraemer T. Towards Extending the Detection Window of Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid-An Untargeted Metabolomics Study in Serum and Urine Following Controlled Administration in Healthy Men. Metabolites 2021; 11:metabo11030166. [PMID: 33809281 PMCID: PMC7998200 DOI: 10.3390/metabo11030166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In forensic toxicology, gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) still represents one of the most challenging drugs of abuse in terms of analytical detection and interpretation. Given its rapid elimination, the detection window of GHB in common matrices is short (maximum 12 h in urine). Additionally, the differentiation from naturally occurring endogenous GHB, is challenging. Thus, novel biomarkers to extend the detection window of GHB are urgently needed. The present study aimed at searching new potential biomarkers of GHB use by means of mass spectrometry (MS) metabolomic profiling in serum (up to 16.5 h) and urine samples (up to 8 h after intake) collected during a placebo-controlled crossover study in healthy men. MS data acquired by different analytical methods (reversed phase and hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography; positive and negative electrospray ionization each) were filtered for significantly changed features applying univariate and mixed-effect model statistics. Complementary to a former study, conjugates of GHB with glycine, glutamate, taurine, carnitine and pentose (ribose) were identified in urine, with particularly GHB-pentose being promising for longer detection. None of the conjugates were detectable in serum. Therein, mainly energy metabolic substrates were identified, which may be useful for more detailed interpretation of underlying pathways but are too unspecific as biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea E. Steuer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (J.R.); (F.S.); (D.A.D.); (T.K.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +41-(0)4-4635-5679
| | - Justine Raeber
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (J.R.); (F.S.); (D.A.D.); (T.K.)
| | - Fabio Simbuerger
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (J.R.); (F.S.); (D.A.D.); (T.K.)
| | - Dario A. Dornbierer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (J.R.); (F.S.); (D.A.D.); (T.K.)
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland; (O.G.B.); (B.B.Q.); (E.S.)
| | - Oliver G. Bosch
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland; (O.G.B.); (B.B.Q.); (E.S.)
| | - Boris B. Quednow
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland; (O.G.B.); (B.B.Q.); (E.S.)
- Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich and Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Erich Seifritz
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland; (O.G.B.); (B.B.Q.); (E.S.)
- Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich and Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
- Zurich Center for Interdisciplinary Sleep Research (ZiS), University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (J.R.); (F.S.); (D.A.D.); (T.K.)
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5
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Inserra A, De Gregorio D, Gobbi G. Psychedelics in Psychiatry: Neuroplastic, Immunomodulatory, and Neurotransmitter Mechanisms. Pharmacol Rev 2020; 73:202-277. [PMID: 33328244 DOI: 10.1124/pharmrev.120.000056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mounting evidence suggests safety and efficacy of psychedelic compounds as potential novel therapeutics in psychiatry. Ketamine has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration in a new class of antidepressants, and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is undergoing phase III clinical trials for post-traumatic stress disorder. Psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) are being investigated in several phase II and phase I clinical trials. Hence, the concept of psychedelics as therapeutics may be incorporated into modern society. Here, we discuss the main known neurobiological therapeutic mechanisms of psychedelics, which are thought to be mediated by the effects of these compounds on the serotonergic (via 5-HT2A and 5-HT1A receptors) and glutamatergic [via N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors] systems. We focus on 1) neuroplasticity mediated by the modulation of mammalian target of rapamycin-, brain-derived neurotrophic factor-, and early growth response-related pathways; 2) immunomodulation via effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, nuclear factor ĸB, and cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin 1, 6, and 10 production and release; and 3) modulation of serotonergic, dopaminergic, glutamatergic, GABAergic, and norepinephrinergic receptors, transporters, and turnover systems. We discuss arising concerns and ways to assess potential neurobiological changes, dependence, and immunosuppression. Although larger cohorts are required to corroborate preliminary findings, the results obtained so far are promising and represent a critical opportunity for improvement of pharmacotherapies in psychiatry, an area that has seen limited therapeutic advancement in the last 20 years. Studies are underway that are trying to decouple the psychedelic effects from the therapeutic effects of these compounds. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Psychedelic compounds are emerging as potential novel therapeutics in psychiatry. However, understanding of molecular mechanisms mediating improvement remains limited. This paper reviews the available evidence concerning the effects of psychedelic compounds on pathways that modulate neuroplasticity, immunity, and neurotransmitter systems. This work aims to be a reference for psychiatrists who may soon be faced with the possibility of prescribing psychedelic compounds as medications, helping them assess which compound(s) and regimen could be most useful for decreasing specific psychiatric symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Inserra
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Danilo De Gregorio
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Gabriella Gobbi
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Maurer HH. Hyphenated high-resolution mass spectrometry-the "all-in-one" device in analytical toxicology? Anal Bioanal Chem 2020; 413:2303-2309. [PMID: 33247339 PMCID: PMC7987635 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-03064-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
This trend article reviews papers with hyphenated high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) approaches applied in analytical toxicology, particularly in clinical and forensic toxicology published since 2016 and referenced in PubMed. The article focuses on the question of whether HRMS has or will become the all-in-one device in these fields as supposed by the increasing number of HRMS presentations at scientific meetings, corresponding original papers, and review articles. Typical examples for the different application fields are discussed such as targeted or untargeted drug screening, quantification, drug metabolism studies, and metabolomics approaches. Considering the reviewed papers, HRMS is currently the only technique that fulfills the criteria of an all-in-one device for the various applications needed in analytical toxicology. Graphical abstract![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans H Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg (Saar), Germany.
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7
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Comparative Untargeted Metabolomics Analysis of the Psychostimulants 3,4-Methylenedioxy-Methamphetamine (MDMA), Amphetamine, and the Novel Psychoactive Substance Mephedrone after Controlled Drug Administration to Humans. Metabolites 2020; 10:metabo10080306. [PMID: 32726975 PMCID: PMC7465486 DOI: 10.3390/metabo10080306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Psychoactive stimulants are a popular drug class which are used recreationally. Over the last decade, large numbers of new psychoactive substances (NPS) have entered the drug market and these pose a worldwide problem to human health. Metabolomics approaches are useful tools for simultaneous detection of endogenous metabolites affected by drug use. They allow identification of pathways or characteristic metabolites, which might support the understanding of pharmacological actions or act as indirect biomarkers of consumption behavior or analytical detectability. Herein, we performed a comparative metabolic profiling of three psychoactive stimulant drugs 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), amphetamine and the NPS mephedrone by liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) in order to identify common pathways or compounds. Plasma samples were obtained from controlled administration studies to humans. Various metabolites were identified as increased or decreased based on drug intake, mainly belonging to energy metabolism, steroid biosynthesis and amino acids. Linoleic acid and pregnenolone-sulfate changed similarly in response to intake of all drugs. Overall, mephedrone produced a profile more similar to that of amphetamine than MDMA in terms of affected energy metabolism. These data can provide the basis for further in-depth targeted metabolome studies on pharmacological actions and search for biomarkers of drug use.
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8
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Manier SK, Wagmann L, Flockerzi V, Meyer MR. Toxicometabolomics of the new psychoactive substances α-PBP and α-PEP studied in HepaRG cell incubates by means of untargeted metabolomics revealed unexpected amino acid adducts. Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:2047-2059. [PMID: 32313995 PMCID: PMC7303098 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02742-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Toxicometabolomics, essentially applying metabolomics to toxicology of endogenous compounds such as drugs of abuse or new psychoactive substances (NPS), can be investigated by using different in vitro models and dedicated metabolomics techniques to enhance the number of relevant findings. The present study aimed to study the toxicometabolomics of the two NPS α-pyrrolidinobutiophenone (1-phenyl-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)butan-1-one, α-PBP) and α-pyrrolidinoheptaphenone (1-phenyl-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)heptan-1-one, α-PEP, PV8) in HepaRG cell line incubates. Evaluation was performed using reversed-phase and normal-phase liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry in positive and negative ionization mode, respectively, to analyze cells and cell media. Statistical evaluation was performed using one-way ANOVA, principal component discriminant function analysis, as well as hierarchical clustering. In general, the analysis of cells did not mainly reveal any features, but the parent compounds of the drugs of abuse. For α-PBP an increase in N-methylnicotinamide was found, which may indicate hepatotoxic potential of the substance. After analysis of cell media, significant features led to the identification of several metabolites of both compounds. Amino acid adducts with glycine and alanine were found, and these have not been described in any study before and are likely to appear in vivo. Additionally, significant changes in the metabolism of cholesterol were revealed after incubation with α-PEP. In summary, the application of metabolomics techniques after HepaRG cells exposure to NPS did not lead to an increased number of identified drug metabolites compared to previously published studies, but gave a wider perspective on the physiological effect of the investigated compounds on human liver cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha K Manier
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, 66421, Homburg, Germany
| | - Lea Wagmann
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, 66421, Homburg, Germany
| | - Veit Flockerzi
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, 66421, Homburg, Germany
| | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, 66421, Homburg, Germany.
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Streun GL, Elmiger MP, Dobay A, Ebert L, Kraemer T. A machine learning approach for handling big data produced by high resolution mass spectrometry after data independent acquisition of small molecules – Proof of concept study using an artificial neural network for sample classification. Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:836-845. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel L. Streun
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic MedicineUniversity of Zurich Zurich Switzerland
| | - Marco P. Elmiger
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic MedicineUniversity of Zurich Zurich Switzerland
| | - Akos Dobay
- Department of Forensic Genetics, Zurich Institute of Forensic MedicineUniversity of Zurich Zurich Switzerland
- Department of Forensic Imaging/Virtopsy, Zurich Institute of Forensic MedicineUniversity of Zurich Zurich Switzerland
| | - Lars Ebert
- Department of Forensic Imaging/Virtopsy, Zurich Institute of Forensic MedicineUniversity of Zurich Zurich Switzerland
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic MedicineUniversity of Zurich Zurich Switzerland
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Costa G, De Luca MA, Piras G, Marongiu J, Fattore L, Simola N. Neuronal and peripheral damages induced by synthetic psychoactive substances: an update of recent findings from human and animal studies. Neural Regen Res 2020; 15:802-816. [PMID: 31719240 PMCID: PMC6990793 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.268895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Preclinical and clinical studies indicate that synthetic psychoactive substances, in addition to having abuse potential, may elicit toxic effects of varying severity at the peripheral and central levels. Nowadays, toxicity induced by synthetic psychoactive substances poses a serious harm for health, since recreational use of these substances is on the rise among young and adult people. The present review summarizes recent findings on the peripheral and central toxicity elicited by “old” and “new” synthetic psychoactive substances in humans and experimental animals, focusing on amphetamine derivatives, hallucinogen and dissociative drugs and synthetic cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Costa
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Maria Antonietta De Luca
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; National Institute of Neuroscience (INN), University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Gessica Piras
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Jacopo Marongiu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Liana Fattore
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Neuroscience, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Nicola Simola
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; National Institute of Neuroscience (INN), University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
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11
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Steuer AE, Brockbals L, Kraemer T. Metabolomic Strategies in Biomarker Research-New Approach for Indirect Identification of Drug Consumption and Sample Manipulation in Clinical and Forensic Toxicology? Front Chem 2019; 7:319. [PMID: 31134189 PMCID: PMC6523029 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug of abuse (DOA) consumption is a growing problem worldwide, particularly with increasing numbers of new psychoactive substances (NPS) entering the drug market. Generally, little information on their adverse effects and toxicity are available. The direct detection and identification of NPS is an analytical challenge due to their ephemerality on the drug scene. An approach that does not directly focus on the structural detection of an analyte or its metabolites, would be beneficial for this complex analytical scenario and the development of alternative screening methods could help to provide fast response on suspected NPS consumption. A metabolomics approach might represent such an alternative strategy for the identification of biomarkers for different questions in DOA testing. Metabolomics is the monitoring of changes in small (endogenous) molecules (<1,000 Da) in response to a certain stimulus, e.g., DOA consumption. For this review, a literature search targeting "metabolomics" and different DOAs or NPS was conducted. Thereby, different applications of metabolomic strategies in biomarker research for DOA identification were identified: (a) as an additional tool for metabolism studies bearing the major advantage that particularly a priori unknown or unexpected metabolites can be identified; and (b) for identification of endogenous biomarker or metabolite patterns, e.g., for synthetic cannabinoids or also to indirectly detect urine manipulation attempts by chemical adulteration or replacement with artificial urine samples. The majority of the currently available literature in that field, however, deals with metabolomic studies for DOAs to better assess their acute or chronic effects or to find biomarkers for drug addiction and tolerance. Certain changes in endogenous compounds are detected for all studied DOAs, but often similar compounds/pathways are influenced. When evaluating these studies with regard to possible biomarkers for drug consumption, the observed changes appear, albeit statistically significant, too small to reliably work as biomarker for drug consumption. Further, different drugs were shown to affect the same pathways. In conclusion, metabolomic approaches possess potential for detection of biomarkers indicating drug consumption. More studies, including more sensitive targeted analyses, multi-variant statistical models or deep-learning approaches are needed to fully explore the potential of omics science in DOA testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea E Steuer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lana Brockbals
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Steuer AE, Raeber J, Steuer C, Boxler MI, Dornbierer DA, Bosch OG, Quednow BB, Seifritz E, Kraemer T. Identification of new urinary gamma‐hydroxybutyric acid markers applying untargeted metabolomics analysis following placebo‐controlled administration to humans. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:813-823. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Revised: 12/04/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea E. Steuer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic MedicineUniversity of Zurich Switzerland
| | - Justine Raeber
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic MedicineUniversity of Zurich Switzerland
| | - Christian Steuer
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, Institute of Pharmaceutical SciencesSwiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Switzerland
| | - Martina I. Boxler
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic MedicineUniversity of Zurich Switzerland
| | - Dario A. Dornbierer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic MedicineUniversity of Zurich Switzerland
- Institute of Pharmacology and ToxicologyUniversity of Zürich Switzerland
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric HospitalUniversity of Zürich Switzerland
- Zürich Center for interdisciplinary Sleep Research (ZiS)University of Zürich Switzerland
| | - Oliver G. Bosch
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric HospitalUniversity of Zürich Switzerland
| | - Boris B. Quednow
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric HospitalUniversity of Zürich Switzerland
| | - Erich Seifritz
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric HospitalUniversity of Zürich Switzerland
- Zürich Center for interdisciplinary Sleep Research (ZiS)University of Zürich Switzerland
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic MedicineUniversity of Zurich Switzerland
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Petschner P, Balogh N, Adori C, Tamasi V, Kumar S, Juhasz G, Bagdy G. Downregulation of the Vitamin D Receptor Regulated Gene Set in the Hippocampus After MDMA Treatment. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:1373. [PMID: 30559663 PMCID: PMC6287013 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.01373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The active ingredient of ecstasy, ±3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), in addition to its initial reinforcing effects, induces selective and non-selective brain damage. Evidences suggest that the hippocampus (HC), a central region for cognition, may be especially vulnerable to impairments on the long-run, nevertheless, transcription factors that may precede and regulate such chronic changes remained uninvestigated in this region. In the current study, we used gene-set enrichment analysis (GSEA) to reveal possible transcription factor candidates responsible for enhanced vulnerability of HC after MDMA administration. Dark Agouti rats were intraperitoneally injected with saline or 15 mg/kg MDMA. Three weeks later HC gene expression was measured by Illumina whole-genome beadarrays and GSEA was performed with MSigDB transcription factor sets. The number of significantly altered genes on the genome level (significance < 0.001) in up/downregulated sets was also counted. MDMA upregulated one, and downregulated 13 gene sets in the HC of rats, compared to controls, including Pax4, Pitx2, FoxJ2, FoxO1, Oct1, Sp3, AP3, FoxO4, and vitamin D receptor (VDR)-regulated sets (q-value <0.05). VDR-regulated set contained the second highest number of significantly altered genes, including among others, Camk2n2, Gria3, and Grin2a. Most identified transcription factors are implicated in the response to ischemia confirming that serious hypoxia/ischemia occurs in the HC after MDMA administration, which may contribute to the selective vulnerability of this brain region. Moreover, our results also raise the possibility that vitamin D supplementation, in addition to the commonly used antioxidants, could be a potential alternative method to attenuate MDMA-induced chronic hippocampal impairments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Petschner
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.,MTA-SE Neuropsychopharmacology and Neurochemistry Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Noemi Balogh
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Csaba Adori
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Viola Tamasi
- Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Sahel Kumar
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gabriella Juhasz
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.,SE-NAP 2 Genetic Brain Imaging Migraine Research Group, Hungarian Brain Research Program, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.,NAP-2-SE New Antidepressant Target Research Group, Hungarian Brain Research Program, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gyorgy Bagdy
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.,MTA-SE Neuropsychopharmacology and Neurochemistry Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.,NAP-2-SE New Antidepressant Target Research Group, Hungarian Brain Research Program, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
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