Microfluidic Encapsulation of Phase-Change Materials for High Thermal Performance

Linear magnet with fluid-solid-switchable cells for flexible devices

Adjusting magnetization orienting and conformal assembling of high-coercivity micro-magnets at the microscale remains challenging, despite long-standing demand for space-resolved magnetic modulation in various applications. Local magnetic modulation, including remagnetization or reassembly, typically requires high fields and temperatures to overcome the coercivity and stringent conditions while suffering from low assembly efficiency or poor spatial resolution. Here, we report a linear magnet composed of a hydrogel (alginate) matrix and precisely discrete phase-change-material (PCM, eicosane) cells containing micro-magnetic particles (NdFeB, ~5 µm). Moderate local laser heating (~40 °C) reversibly switches PCM from solid to fluid state thus relaxing particles' interfacial constraints inside the hydrogel matrix, overcoming the high-coercivity of magnetic assembly and allowing particles in cells to reorient under mild fields (≤30 mT). The linear magnet shows excellent discrete magnetization programmability (~150 µm) and stretchability (strain ~80%), enabling versatile functionalities such as conformal and patterned field generation, soft robotic actuation, flexible sensing, and interactive wearables with dynamically coded information.

Investigation and insights on the on-demand generation of monodispersed emulsion droplets from a floating capillary-based open microfluidic device

Simple and stable generation of monodispersed droplets with volume from picolitre to nanoliter is one of the key factors in high-throughput quantitative microreactors for chemical and biomedical applications. In this work, an efficient method that could realize simple manipulating microflow with a broad operation window for preparing monodispersed droplets with controllable diameter is developed. The microfluidic device is constructed by inserting a capillary with an oblique angle (α) into the continuous phase, named a floating capillary-based open microfluidic device (FCOMD). The transition of droplet-generating mode between dripping and jetting can be achieved by changing capillary number and α. A computational model based on the volume-of-fluid/continuum-surface-force method to explain the controllability of α on the droplet formation regime and droplet breakage, verifying the synergistic effect of ΔP and Fb, facilitates the droplet pinching. A descending order of Pn of capillary with different α is that 45° > 30° > 15° > 60° > 75°, leading to the same order of generated droplet's D. When compared with the traditional capillary co-flow device, the generating throughput of the integrated FCOMD obtained by integrating different numbers of capillaries is at least ten times. Moreover, water in oil, oil in water double-emulsion, colloidal dispersed droplets, and liquid crystal droplets with diameters ranging from 25 to 800 μm are prepared on-demand by the FCOMD, indicating the universality of the microfluidic device. Thus, the FCOMD shows the features of simplicity, practicability, and flexibility, offering valuable guidance for generating controllable droplets with wide size change and showing a great potential application in material science, foods, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.

Phase Change Materials Meet Microfluidic Encapsulation

Improving the utilization of thermal energy is crucial in the world nowadays due to the high levels of energy consumption. One way to achieve this is to use phase change materials (PCMs) as thermal energy storage media, which can be used to regulate temperature or provide heating/cooling in various applications. However, PCMs have limitations like low thermal conductivity, leakage, and corrosion. To overcome these challenges, PCMs are encapsulated into microencapsulated phase change materials (MEPCMs) capsules/fibers. This encapsulation prevents PCMs from leakage and corrosion issues, and the microcapsules/fibers act as conduits for heat transfer, enabling efficient exchange between the PCM and its surroundings. Microfluidics-based MEPCMs have attracted intensive attention over the past decade due to the exquisite control over flow conditions and size of microcapsules. This review paper aims to provide an overview of the state-of-art progress in microfluidics-based encapsulation of PCMs. The principle and method of preparing MEPCM capsules/fibers using microfluidic technology are elaborated, followed by the analysis of their thermal and microstructure characteristics. Meanwhile, the applications of MEPCM in the fields of building energy conservation, textiles, military aviation, solar energy utilization, and bioengineering are summarized. Finally, the perspectives on MEPCM capsules/fibers are discussed.

Open and closed microfluidics for biosensing

Biosensing is vital for many areas like disease diagnosis, infectious disease prevention, and point-of-care monitoring. Microfluidics has been evidenced to be a powerful tool for biosensing via integrating biological detection processes into a palm-size chip. Based on the chip structure, microfluidics has two subdivision types: open microfluidics and closed microfluidics, whose operation methods would be diverse. In this review, we summarize fundamentals, liquid control methods, and applications of open and closed microfluidics separately, point out the bottlenecks, and propose potential directions of microfluidics-based biosensing.

Microfluidic encapsulation of DNAs in liquid beads for digital PCR application

Droplet-based microfluidics and digital polymerase chain reaction (PCR) hold significant promise for accurately detecting and quantifying pathogens. However, existing droplet-based digital PCR (ddPCR) applications have been relying exclusively on single emulsion droplets. Single emulsion droplets may not be suitable for applications such as identifying the source and pathways of water contamination where the templates must be protected against harsh environmental conditions. In this study, we developed a core-shell particle to serve as a protective framework for DNAs, with potential applications in digital PCR. We employed a high-throughput and facile flow-focusing microfluidic device to generate liquid beads, core-shell particles with liquid cores, which provided precise control over process parameters and consequently particle characteristics. Notably, the interfacial interaction between the core and shell liquids could be adjusted without adding surfactants to either phase. As maintaining stability is essential for ensuring the accuracy of digital PCR (dPCR), we investigated parameters that affect the stability of core-shell droplets, including surfactants in the continuous phase and core density. As a proof of concept, we encapsulated a series of human faecal DNA samples in the core-shell droplets and the subsequent liquid beads. The core-shell particles ensure contamination-free encapsulation of DNA in the core. The volume of the core droplets containing the PCR mixture is only 0.12 nL. Our experimental results indicate that the liquid beads formulated using our technique can amplify the encapsulated DNA and be used for digital PCR without interfering with the fluorescence signal. We successfully demonstrated the ability to detect and quantify DNA under varying concentrations. These findings provide new insights and a step change in digital PCR that could benefit various applications, including the detection and tracking of environmental pollution.

Controlled Latent Heat Phase-Change Microcapsules for Temperature Regulation

Microencapsulation of phase-change materials (PCMs) is of great value and significance for improving energy efficiency and reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Here, highly controllable phase-change microcapsules (PCMCs) with hexadecane as the core material and polyurea as the shell material were developed for precise temperature regulation. A universal liquid-driven active flow focusing technique platform was used to adjust the diameter of PCMCs, and the shell thickness can be controlled by adjusting the monomer ratio. In synchronized regime, the droplet size is only related to the flow rate and excitation frequency, which can be accurately predicted by the scaling law. The fabricated PCMCs have uniform particle size with a coefficient of variation (CV) under 2%, smooth surface, and compact structure. Meanwhile, under the good protection of a polyurea shell, PCMCs exhibit fair phase-change performance, strong heat storage capacity, and good thermal stability. The PCMCs with different sizes and wall thickness show obvious differences in thermal properties. The feasibility of the fabricated hexadecane phase-change microcapsules in phase-change temperature regulation was verified by thermal analysis. These features indicate that the developed PCMCs by the active flow focusing technique platform have broad application prospects in thermal energy storage and thermal management.

Lego-Inspired Glass Capillary Microfluidic Device: A Technique for Bespoke Microencapsulation of Phase Change Materials

We report a Lego-inspired glass capillary microfluidic device capable of encapsulating both organic and aqueous phase change materials (PCMs) with high reproducibility and 100% PCM yield. Oil-in-oil-in-water (O/O/W) and water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) core-shell double emulsion droplets were formed to encapsulate hexadecane (HD, an organic PCM) and salt hydrate SP21EK (an aqueous PCM) in a UV-curable polymeric shell, Norland Optical Adhesive (NOA). The double emulsions were consolidated through on-the-fly polymerization, which followed thiol-ene click chemistry for photoinitiation. The particle diameters and shell thicknesses of the microcapsules were controlled by manipulating the geometry of glass capillaries and fluid flow rates. The microcapsules were monodispersed and exhibited the highest encapsulation efficiencies of 65.4 and 44.3% for HD and SP21EK-based materials, respectively, as determined using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The thermogravimetric (TGA) analysis confirmed much higher thermal stability of both encapsulated PCMs compared to pure PCMs. Polarization microscopy revealed that microcapsules could sustain over 100 melting-crystallization cycles without any structural changes. Bifunctional microcapsules with remarkable photocatalytic activity along with thermal energy storage performance were produced after the addition of 1 wt % titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles (NPs) into the polymeric shell. The presence of TiO₂ NPs in the shell was confirmed by higher opacity and whiteness of these microcapsules and was quantified by energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy. Young's modulus of HD-based microcapsules estimated using micromanipulation analysis increased from 58.5 to 224 MPa after TiO₂ incorporation in the shell.

Rheological Behavior of Phase Change Slurries for Thermal Energy Applications

Phase change materials that leverage the latent heat of solid-liquid transition have many applications in thermal energy transport and storage. When employed as particles within a carrier fluid, the resulting phase change slurries (PCSs) could outperform present-day single-phase working fluids─provided that viscous losses can be minimized. This work investigates the rheological behavior of encapsulated and nonencapsulated phase change slurries (PCSs) for applicability in flowing thermal energy systems. The physical and thermal properties of the PCS candidates, along with their rheological behavior, are investigated below and above their phase transition points at shear rates of 1-300 s^-1, temperatures of 20-80 °C, and concentrations of 15-37.5 wt %. The effect of shell robustness and melting on local shear thickening and global shear thinning is discussed, followed by an analysis of the required pumping power. A hysteresis analysis is performed to test the transient response of the PCS under a range of shear rates. We assess the complex viscoelastic behavior by employing oscillatory flow tests and by delineating the flow indices─flow consistency index (K) and flow behavior index (n). We identify a viscosity limit of 0.1 Pa·s for optimal thermal performance in high-flow applications such as renewable geothermal energy.

Recent advances in the microfluidic production of functional microcapsules by multiple-emulsion templating

Multiple-emulsion drops serve as versatile templates to design functional microcapsules due to their core-shell geometry and multiple compartments. Microfluidics has been used for the elaborate production of multiple-emulsion drops with a controlled composition, order, and dimensions, elevating the value of multiple-emulsion templates. Moreover, recent advances in the microfluidic control of the emulsification and parallelization of drop-making junctions significantly enhance the production throughput for practical use. Metastable multiple-emulsion drops are converted into stable microcapsules through the solidification of selected phases, among which solid shells are designed to function in a programmed manner. Functional microcapsules are used for the storage and release of active materials as drug carriers. Beyond their conventional uses, microcapsules can serve as microcompartments responsible for transmembrane communication, which is promising for their application in advanced microreactors, artificial cells, and microsensors. Given that post-processing provides additional control over the composition and construction of multiple-emulsion drops, they are excellent confining geometries to study the self-assembly of colloids and liquid crystals and produce miniaturized photonic devices. This review article presents the recent progress and current state of the art in the microfluidic production of multiple-emulsion drops, functionalization of solid shells, and applications of microcapsules.

Droplet Bouncing: Fundamentals, Regulations, and Applications

Droplet impact is a ubiquitous phenomenon in nature, daily life, and industrial processes. It is thus crucial to tune the impact outcomes for various applications. As a special outcome of droplet impact, the bouncing of droplets keeps the form of the droplets after the impact and minimizes the energy loss during the impact, being beneficial in many applications. A unified understanding of droplet bouncing is in high demand for effective development of new techniques to serve applications. This review shows the fundamentals, regulations, and applications of millimeter-sized droplet bouncing on solid surfaces and same/miscible liquids (liquid pool and another droplet). Regulation methods and current applications are summarized, and potential directions are proposed.

Microfluidic Production of Monodisperse Biopolymer Microcapsules for Latent Heat Storage

Microencapsulation of phase change materials in a polymer shell is a promising technology to prevent them from leakage and to use them as a handleable powder state. However, the microencapsulation process is a time-consuming process because the typical shell-forming step requires polymerization or evaporation of the solvent. In this study, we report a simple and rapid flow process to prepare monodisperse biocompatible cellulose acetate (CA) microcapsules encapsulating n-hexadecane (HD) for latent heat storage applications. The microcapsules were prepared by combining microfluidic droplet formation and subsequent rapid solvent removal from the droplets by solvent diffusion. The diameter and shell thickness of the microcapsules could be controlled by adjusting the flow rate and the HD-to-CA weight ratio in the dispersed phase. We found that 1-hexadecanol added to the microcapsules played the role of a nucleation agent and mitigated the supercooling phenomenon during crystallization. Furthermore, cross-linking of the CA shell with poly(propylene glycol), tolylene 2,4-diisocyanate terminated, resulted in the formation of a thin and dense shell. The microcapsules exhibited a 66 wt % encapsulation efficiency and a 176 J g^-1 latent heat storage capacity, with negligible supercooling. We believe that this microflow process can contribute to the preparation of environmentally friendly microcapsules for heat storage applications.

Microfluidic generation of ATPS droplets by transient double emulsion technique

An aqueous two-phase system (ATPS) is considered as a promising candidate for biological applications due to its excellent permeability, selective separation, rapid mass transfer and all-biocompatible nature. However, it remains difficult to generate ATPS emulsions with controllable and prolonged stability due to ultra-low interfacial tension. Here, we present a transient double emulsion (TDE) technique to address this challenge. The method involves two steps: (i) water-in-oil-in-water (W1/O/W2) transient double emulsion droplets are first produced with droplet microfluidics by introducing an additional middle oil phase, and (ii) the W1/O/W2 droplets dewet into oil-in-water and ATPS droplets in a controllable manner. Using the TDE method, both dextran-in-polyethylene glycol (PEG) and PEG-in-dextran ATPS droplets can be generated with high uniformity (coefficient of variation (CV) ranging from 0.66% to 2.55%), a wide range of droplet sizes (∼100 to 250 μm in radius), and tunability in the generation frequency (∼4 to 170 Hz). Tuning the oil viscosity controls the destabilization time for on-demand dewetting and releasing of aqueous core droplets. The stability of ATPS droplets is significantly improved by storing aqueous droplets in double emulsion vessels, which would benefit various applications, such as small molecule encapsulation.

Design and Construction of Photochromic and Antileakage Reinforced Wood-Based Cellulose Microframework/Hexadecanol-Coconut Oil Composite Phase Change Material

The development of high-performance shape-stable phase change material composites (SPCMs) with high phase change enthalpy and high conversion efficiency, especially with good photochromic properties, is essential for thermal energy storage. Here, we report that one type of SPCMs with both photochromic and phase change energy storage is obtained by incorporating organic binary composite PCMs (hexadecanol/coconut oil, H/C) and photochromic phosphotungstic acid (PA) into Ochroma pyramidale wood-based cellulose microframe (DOW) through simple vacuum impregnation. When the ratio of hexadecanol to coconut oil is 3:7 and the ratio of phosphotungstic acid to N,N-dimethylacetamide is 4:13.6, the SPCM composite material (DOW-H3C7-4PA) represents a high phase transition enthalpy of 163.7 J/g and an appropriate phase transition temperature of 42.55 °C that can be applied to the environmental temperature adjustment of high-temperature areas (>40 °C) mentioned in this paper, in addition to the excellent thermal stability and photochromic stability; for example, even after 100 thermal cycles and UV radiation cycles, its phase transition enthalpy remains almost unchanged. The DOW-H3C7-4PA composite material also shows good shape stability and leakage resistance. In addition, the high photothermal conversion efficiency (65.71%) of DOW-H3C7-4PA is considered to be a promising candidate for photothermal energy storage applications. Therefore, the manufactured SPCMs (DOW-H3C7-4PA) have high latent heat, good melting/freezing cycle reliability, high photochromic stability, and remarkable light-to-heat energy conversion ability, making them show broad application prospects in energy conversion and storage devices.