Pickering Emulsions Stabilized by pH-Responsive Microgels and Their Scalable Transformation to Robust Submicrometer Colloidoisomes with Selective Permeability

Designing Configurable Soft Microgelsomes as a Smart Biomimetic Protocell

Self-assembly is an intriguing aspect of primitive cells. The construction of a semipermeable compartment with a robust framework of soft material capable of housing an array of functional components for chemical changes is essential for the fabrication of synthetic protocells. Microgels, loosely cross-linked polymer networks, are suitable building blocks for protocell capsule generation due to their porous structure, tunable properties, and assembly at the emulsion interface. Here, we present an interfacial assembly of microgel-based microcompartments (microgelsomes, MGC) that are defined by a semipermeable, temperature-responsive elastic membrane formed by densely packed microgels in a monolayer. The water-dispersible microgelsomes can thermally shuttle between 10 and 95 °C while retaining their structural integrity. Importantly, the microgelsomes exhibited distinct properties of protocells, such as cargo encapsulation, semipermeable membrane, DNA amplification, and membrane-gated compartmentalized enzymatic cascade reaction. This versatile approach for the construction of biomimetic microcompartments augments the protocell library and paves the way for programmable synthetic cells.

Efficient Fabrication of Self-Assembled Polylactic Acid Colloidosomes for Pesticide Encapsulation

Colloidosomes are microcapsules whose shells are composed of cumulated or fused colloidal particles. When colloidosomes are used for in situ encapsulation, it is still a challenge to achieve a high encapsulation efficiency and controllable release by an effective fabrication method. Herein, we present a highly efficient route for the large-scale preparation of colloidosomes. The biodegradable polylactic acid (PLA) nanoparticles (NPs) as shell materials can be synthesized using an antisolvent precipitation method, and the possible formation mechanism was given through the molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. The theoretical values are basically consistent with the experimental results. Through the use of the modified and unmodified PLA NPs, the colloidosomes with controllable shell porosities can be easily constructed using spray drying technology. We also investigate the mechanism of colloidosomes successfully self-assembled by PLA NPs with various factors of inlet temperature, feed rate, and flow rates of compressed air. Furthermore, avermectin (AVM) was used as a model for in situ encapsulation and a controllable release. The spherical modified colloidosomes encapsulating AVM not only achieve a small mean diameter of 1.57 μm but also realize a high encapsulation efficiency of 89.7% and impermeability, which can be further verified by the MD simulation. AVM molecules gather around and clog the shell pores during the evaporation of water molecules. More importantly, the PLA colloidosomes also reveal excellent UV-shielding properties, which can protect AVM from photodegradation.

Efficient Construction of pH-Stimuli-Responsive Colloidosomes with High Encapsulation Efficiency

Intelligent responsive colloidosomes have attracted increasing attention for their potential to enhance the efficacy and decrease the side effects of drugs in biomedical applications. However, a low encapsulation efficiency and complicated preparation method greatly limit their development. Herein, we report an efficient approach for the construction of pH-stimuli-responsive colloidosomes with high encapsulation efficiency by a high-gravity technology. The conditions under which latex particles with different methacrylic acid contents can successfully self-assemble into colloidosomes are explored. During the preparation process, emulsions emulsified for only 10 min at 2500 rpm in a unique high-gravity shearing surroundings are clarified owing to the greatly enhanced micromixing, while the emulsions emulsified for 30 min by a traditional high-speed shear machine at 4000 rpm are still yellow-white. More importantly, regular spherical colloidosomes encapsulating an anticancer drug doxorubicin not only achieve a small mean diameter of 2.82 μm but also realize a high encapsulation efficiency of 76.5%. The release performance of doxorubicin has an obvious pH-stimuli-responsive regularity and follows the first-order model of sustained release. The construction of intelligent responsive colloidosomes as drug carriers provides a route for controlled drug release and biomedical applications.

Biocatalytic Synthesis Using Self-Assembled Polymeric Nano- and Microreactors

Biocatalysis is increasingly being explored for the sustainable development of green industry. Though enzymes show great industrial potential with their high efficiency, specificity, and selectivity, they suffer from poor usability and stability under abiological conditions. To solve these problems, researchers have fabricated nano- and micro-sized biocatalytic reactors based on the self-assembly of various polymers, leading to highly stable, functional, and reusable biocatalytic systems. This Review highlights recent progress in self-assembled polymeric nano- and microreactors for biocatalytic synthesis, including polymersomes, reverse micelles, polymer emulsions, Pickering emulsions, and static emulsions. We categorize these reactors into monophasic and biphasic systems and discuss their structural characteristics and latest successes with representative examples. We also consider the challenges and potential solutions associated with the future development of this field.

Controlled evaporation-induced phase separation of droplets containing nanogels and salt molecules

Droplets without protection from surfactants or surfactant-like objects normally experience merging or a coalescence process since it is thermodynamically favored. However, division or replication of droplets is thermodynamically unfavored and comparably more difficult to realize. Herein, we demonstrate that a population of droplets that are composed of nanogels and salt spontaneously undergo a separation process under a slow solvent evaporation condition. Each individual droplet underwent changes in size, shape and eventually developed into two domains, which was caused by the screening effect due to the increased salt concentration as a result of solvent evaporation. The two domains gradually separated into nanogel-rich and salt-rich parts. These two parts eventually evolved into nanogel aggregates and branched structures, respectively. This separation was mainly due to the salting out effect and dewetting. Comparison studies indicate that both the nanogels and salt are indispensable ingredients for the phase separation. These discoveries may have profound applications in the fields of biomimetics and offer new routes for self-replication systems.

An individual droplet containing nanogels and salts can evolve into gel-rich and salt-rich two separate parts upon evaporation.

Non-Covalent Reconfigurable Microgel Colloidosomes with a Well-Defined Bilayer Shell

Microgels are extremely interfacially active and are widely used to stabilize emulsions. However, they are commonly used to stabilize oil-in-water emulsions due to their intrinsic hydrophilicity and initially dispersed in water. In addition, there have been no attempts to control microgel structural layers that are formed at the interface and as a result it limits applications of microgel in advanced materials. Here, we show that by introducing octanol into poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-methacrylic acid) (PNIPAM-co-MAA) microgels, octanol-swollen microgels can rapidly diffuse from the initially dispersed oil phase onto the water droplet surface. This facilitates the formation of microgel-laden interfacial layers with strong elastic responses and also generates stable inverse water-in-oil Pickering emulsions. These emulsions can be used as templates to produce microgel colloidosomes, herein termed ‘microgelsomes’, with shells that can be fine-tuned from a particle monolayer to a well-defined bilayer. The microgelsomes can then be used to encapsulate and/or anchor nanoparticles, proteins, vitamin C, bio-based nanocrystals or enzymes. Moreover, the programmed release of these substances can be achieved by using ethanol as a trigger to mediate shell permeability. Thus, these reconfigurable microgelsomes with a microgel-bilayer shell can respond to external stimuli and demonstrate tailored properties, which offers novel insights into microgels and promise wider application of Pickering emulsions stabilized by soft colloids.

Inverse W/O Pickering emulsions and reconfigurable microgelsomes with a well-defined bilayer structure are prepared from octanol-swollen PNIPAM-co-MAA microgels and the combination of binary microgels, which promise wider application of soft colloids.

Microgels at interfaces, from mickering emulsions to flat interfaces and back

In this review, we cover the topic of p(NIPAM) based microgels at interfaces, revisiting classical studies in light of the newest ones. In particular, we focus on their use as emulsifiers in the so-called mickering emulsions, i.e. Pickering emulsion stabilized by soft particles. Given the complexity of the experimental characterization and simulation of these soft particles at interfaces, the review is structured in progressive complexity levels, until we reach the highly interesting and promising responsiveness to stimuli of mickering emulsions. We start from the lowest level of complexity, the current understanding of the behavior of single microgels confined at a flat interface. Then, we discuss their collective behavior upon crowding, their responsiveness at interfaces, and their macroscopic properties as microgel films. Once we have the necessary characterization tools, we proceed to discuss the complex and convoluted picture of responsive mickering emulsions. The way is rough, with current controversial and contradicting studies, but it holds promising results as well. We state open questions worth of being tackled by the Soft Matter community, and we conclude that it is worth the trouble of continuing after the master theory of microgel interfacial activity, as it will pave the way to widely adopt responsive mickering emulsions as the worthy Pickering emulsion successors.

Pickering nano-emulsions stabilized by Eudragit RL100 nanoparticles as oral drug delivery system for poorly soluble drugs

The purpose of this study was to develop Pickering water-in-oil nano-emulsions only stabilized by Eudragit RL100 nanoparticles (NPs), in order to increase the nano-emulsion stability and create a barrier to improve the drug encapsulation and better control the drug release. The first part of this study was dedicated to investigating the nano-emulsion formulation by ultrasonication and understanding the interfacial behavior and role of NPs in the stabilization of the water/oil interface. The focus was on the surface coverage in the function of the formulation parameters (volume fractions) to disclose the extents and limitations of the process. The main physicochemical analysis of the Pickering nano-emulsions was performed by dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy. On the other hand, the second experimental approach was dedicated to understanding the interfacial behavior of the Eudragit RL100 NPs toward a model water/oil interface, using a dynamic tensiometer with axisymmetric drop shape analysis. The study investigated the NPs' adsorption, as well as their rheological behavior. The aim of this part was to reveal the main phenomena that govern the interactions between NPs and the interface in order to understand the origin of Pickering nano-emulsions' stability. The last part of the study was concerned with the stability and in vitro release of a model encapsulated drug (ketoprofen) in a gastric and simulated intestinal environment. The results showed that Pickering nano-emulsions significantly improved the resistance to gastric pH, inducing a significantly slower drug release compared to classical nano-emulsions' stabilized surfactants. These Pickering nano-emulsions appear as a promising technology to modify the delivery of a therapeutic agent, in the function of the pH, and can be, for instance, applied to the oral drug delivery of poorly soluble drugs.

Degradable and Thermosensitive Microgels with Tannic Acid as the Sole Cross-Linker

Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM)-tannic acid (TA) microgels were successfully prepared via surfactant-free emulsion polymerization (SFEP) at 70 °C in aqueous solution using N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAM) as the monomer and a natural polyphenol macromolecule, TA, as the sole cross-linker. The cross-linking network of the PNIPAM-TA microgels was confirmed to contain both physical cross-linking structures formed via hydrogen-bonding interactions between TA and PNIPAM chains and chemical cross-linking structures formed via capturing the radicals of propagating polymer chains by catechol and pyrogallol groups of TA. Furthermore, TA was applied to modify the surface of hydrophobic Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles, leading to hydrophilic Fe₃O₄@TA composite nanoparticles, which were successfully used as the cross-linker to fabricate PNIPAM-Fe₃O₄@TA organic-inorganic hybrid microgels. The obtained PNIPAM-TA and PNIPAM-Fe₃O₄@TA organic-inorganic hybrid microgels had a uniform spherical shape with a relatively narrow size distribution and exhibited thermosensitive behavior and pH-tunable degradation. The PNIPAM-TA microgels were stable in the pH range of 1.3-11.1 but underwent complete degradation with pH above 11.4. The PNIPAM-Fe₃O₄@TA hybrid microgels were partially degraded at pH values of 1.3 and 2.1, stable in the pH range of 3.1-11.1, and underwent complete degradation at pH above 11.4. The partial degradation of PNIPAM-Fe₃O₄@TA organic-inorganic hybrid microgels under strong acidic conditions was attributed to the disintegration of Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles. The complete degradation of both microgels at pH above 11.4 was attributed to the hydrolysis of ester groups of TA under strong alkali conditions.

Preparation of pH Responsive Polystyrene and Polyvinyl Pyridine Nanospheres Stabilized by Mickering Microgel Emulsions

New pH-sensitive polystyrene, PS, and poly(4-vinylpyridine), P4-VP, nanospheres were prepared by using surfactant-free method based on soft microgels (Mickering emulsion). The formation of stable Mickering cyclohexane/water emulsions was investigated by using soft microgel particles of poly(acrylamide), PAAm, poly(2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid), PAMPS, and sodium salt of PAMPS, PAMPS-Na, as stabilizers. The dynamic light scattering (DLS), optical microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used to investigate the optimum conditions and effects of surrounding solutions on the microgels characteristics and their corresponding Mickering emulsions. The cyclohexane/water Mickering emulsions stabilized by softer and neutral charged microgels were considerably more stable under the same conditions. Furthermore, the stimuli-responsive properties of PAMPS microgel stabilized cyclohexane/water Mickering emulsions suggest the potential utility in the preparation of PS and P4-VP nanospheres. The effects of pH changes on the morphology, particle sizes, and surface charges of PS and P4-VP microgels were evaluated to prove the pH-sensitivity of the prepared nanospheres.

Sugar-responsive Pickering emulsions mediated by switching hydrophobicity in microgels

HYPOTHESIS

Pickering emulsions stabilized by soft and responsive microgels can demulsify on demand upon microgel collapse. The concept has been explored with simple model microgels such as poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (pNIPAM) and their derivatives, but the role of functionalization is largely unexplored.

EXPERIMENTS

Saccharide-responsive phenylboronic-modified microgels are used as Pickering emulsion stabilizers. Emulsion stability and microgel organization at drop surface are studied as a function of saccharide concentration. Better insight into their behavior at interfaces is gained through adsorption kinetics and Langmuir film studies at air-water interface.

FINDINGS

The functionalization of water-swollen microgels by phenylboronic functions imparts some hydrophobicity to the structure, at the origin of additional internal cross-links analogous which rigidify the structure compared to non-functionalized microgels, as proved by their slow adsorption kinetics and poor interfacial compressibility. Upon boronate ester formation with diol groups of the saccharide, the hydrophobic character of the phenylboronic acid decreases, increasing the adsorption kinetics and their interfacial compressibility. Emulsions are stable in the presence of saccharide, given the high deformability of the yet-hydrophilic microgels, and mechanically unstable with less deformable particles in low saccharide concentration. The hydrophobic-hydrophilic switch acts as a trigger to tune the microgel stabilizing properties.

Novel amphiphilic cellulose nanocrystals for pH-responsive Pickering emulsions

Development of a green, recyclable emulsifier for pH-responsive Pickering emulsion would be of great importance to many industries. To this end, a novel emulsifier, benzyl-polyethyleneimine modified cellulose nanocrystals (Ben-PEI-CNCs), was developed via the periodate oxidation of cellulose nanocrystals and reductive amination. Ben-PEI-CNCs possess pH-responsive amphiphilicity due to the existence of hydrophilic amino and hydrophobic benzyl groups. The Pickering emulsions stabilized by Ben-PEI-CNC2 and Ben-PEI-CNC18 are very responsive to pH changes, and adjusting the pH from 3 to 7 effectively triggers oil-water separation and emulsification. Additionally, cyclic testing establishes the robustness of this process. Overall, this study demonstrates that Ben-PEI-CNCs can promote the transition from a stable emulsion to an unstable emulsion by adjusting the pH, allowing the recovery of oil and the recycling of the emulsifier.

Microgels at fluid-fluid interfaces for food and drinks

Various aspects of microgel adsorption at fluid-fluid interfaces of relevance to emulsion and foam stabilization have been reviewed. The emphasis is on the wider non-food literature, with a view to highlighting how this understanding can be applied to food-based systems. The various different types of microgel, their methods of formation and their fundamental behavioral traits at interfaces are covered. The latter includes aspects of microgel deformation and packing at interfaces, their deformability, size, swelling and de-swelling and how this affects their surface activity and stabilizing properties. Experimental and theoretical methods for measuring and modelling their behaviour are surveyed, including interactions between microgels themselves at interfaces but also other surface active species. It is concluded that challenges still remain in translating all the possibilities synthetic microgels offer to microgels based on food-grade materials only, but Nature's rich tool box of biopolymers and biosurfactants suggests that this field will still open up important new avenues of food microstructure development and control.

Emulsions Stabilized with Polyelectrolyte Complexes Prepared from a Mixture of a Weak and a Strong Polyelectrolyte

The possibility of stabilizing emulsions with polyelectrolyte complexes (PEC) obtained from the interaction of two non-surface-active oppositely charged polyelectrolytes (PEL) is described. Poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) and poly(4-styrene sulfonate) sodium salt are selected as the weak cationic and the strong anionic polyelectrolyte, respectively. Aqueous polymer mixtures are investigated by light scattering to determine the size of the complexes and whether precipitation or complex coacervation occurs. The effects of PEL mixing ratio, pH, and PEL concentration are studied in detail. By increasing the pH, the transition precipitate-precipitate/coacervate-coacervate-polymer solution is observed. At low pH, both PEL are fully ionized and therefore precipitates (soft particles) arise as a result of strong electrostatic interactions. By increasing the pH, the degree of ionization of PAH decreases and weak electrostatic interactions ensue, supporting the formation of coacervate droplets. The most stable oil-in-water emulsions are prepared from aqueous mixtures around charge neutralization. Although emulsions can be prepared from coacervate droplet dispersions, their coalescence stability is worse than those stabilized by soft PEC particles. By increasing the PEL concentration, the average droplet diameter decreases and the fraction of cream in the emulsion increases for emulsions prepared with PEC particles, following the limited coalescence model. However, at high concentrations, emulsion stability is slightly worse probably due to extensive aggregation of the particles. Viscous high internal phase emulsions can be prepared at low pH in which oil droplets are deformed. Here, PEC particles are detected only at the oil-water interface. At lower oil content, excess particles form a network in the aqueous phase aiding emulsion stability to coalescence.

Highly deformable hydrogels constructed by pH-triggered polyacid nanoparticle disassembly in aqueous dispersions

Most hydrogels are prepared using small-molecule monomers but unfortunately this approach may not be feasible for certain biomaterial applications. Consequently, alternative gel construction strategies have been established, which include using covalent inter-linking of preformed gel particles, or microgels (MGs). For example, covalently interlinking pH-responsive MGs can produce hydrogels comprising doubly crosslinked microgels (DX MGs). We hypothesised that the deformability of such DX MGs was limited by the presence of intra-MG crosslinking. Thus, in this study we designed new nanoparticle (NP)-based gels based on pH-swellable NPs that are not internally crosslinked. Two polyacid NPs were synthesised containing methacrylic acid (MAA) and either ethyl acrylate (EA) or methyl methacrylate (MMA). The PMAA-EA and PMAA-MMA NPs were subsequently vinyl-functionalised using glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) prior to gel formation via free-radical crosslinking. The NPs mostly disassembled on raising the solution pH but some self-crosslinking was nevertheless evident. The gels constructed from the EA- and MMA-based NPs had greater breaking strains than a control DX MG. The effect of varying the solution pH during curing on the morphology and mechanical properties of gels prepared using PMAA-MMA-GMA NPs was studied and both remarkable deformability and excellent recovery were observed. The gels were strongly pH-responsive and had tensile breaking strains of up to 420% with a compressive strain-at-break of more than 93%. An optimised formulation produced the most deformable and stretchable gel yet constructed using NPs or MGs as the only building block.

Stimuli-Responsive Microgels and Microgel-Based Systems: Advances in the Exploitation of Microgel Colloidal Properties and Their Interfacial Activity

In this paper, recent developments in the chemical design of functional microgels are summarized. A wide range of available synthetic methods allows the incorporation of various reactive groups, charges, or biological markers inside the microgel network, thus controlling the deformation and swelling degree of the resulting smart microgels. These microgels can respond to various stimuli, such as temperature, pH, light, electric field, etc. and can show unique deformation behavior at the interface. Due to their switchability and interfacial properties, these smart microgels are being extensively explored for various applications, such as antifouling coatings, cell encapsulation, catalysis, controlled drug delivery, and tissue engineering.