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Khalil A, Barras A, Boukherroub R, Tseng CL, Devos D, Burnouf T, Neuhaus W, Szunerits S. Enhancing paracellular and transcellular permeability using nanotechnological approaches for the treatment of brain and retinal diseases. NANOSCALE HORIZONS 2023; 9:14-43. [PMID: 37853828 DOI: 10.1039/d3nh00306j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
Paracellular permeability across epithelial and endothelial cells is, in large part, regulated by apical intercellular junctions also referred to as tight junctions (TJs). These junctions contribute to the spatial definition of different tissue compartments within organisms, separating them from the outside world as well as from inner compartments, with their primary physiological role of maintaining tissue homeostasis. TJs restrict the free, passive diffusion of ions and hydrophilic small molecules through paracellular clefts and are important for appropriate cell polarization and transporter protein localisation, supporting the controlled transcellular diffusion of smaller and larger hydrophilic as well as hydrophobic substances. This traditional diffusion barrier concept of TJs has been challenged lately, owing to a better understanding of the components that are associated with TJs. It is now well-established that mutations in TJ proteins are associated with a range of human diseases and that a change in the membrane fluidity of neighbouring cells can open possibilities for therapeutics to cross intercellular junctions. Nanotechnological approaches, exploiting ultrasound or hyperosmotic agents and permeation enhancers, are the paradigm for achieving enhanced paracellular diffusion. The other widely used transport route of drugs is via transcellular transport, allowing the passage of a variety of pro-drugs and nanoparticle-encapsulated drugs via different mechanisms based on receptors and others. For a long time, there was an expectation that lipidic nanocarriers and polymeric nanostructures could revolutionize the field for the delivery of RNA and protein-based therapeutics across different biological barriers equipped with TJs (e.g., blood-brain barrier (BBB), retina-blood barrier (RBB), corneal TJs, etc.). However, only a limited increase in therapeutic efficiency has been reported for most systems until now. The purpose of this review is to explore the reasons behind the current failures and to examine the emergence of synthetic and cell-derived nanomaterials and nanotechnological approaches as potential game-changers in enhancing drug delivery to target locations both at and across TJs using innovative concepts. Specifically, we will focus on recent advancements in various nanotechnological strategies enabling the bypassing or temporally opening of TJs to the brain and to the retina, and discuss their advantages and limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asmaa Khalil
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Univ. Polytechnique Hauts-de-France, UMR 8520 - IEMN, F-59000 Lille, France.
| | - Alexandre Barras
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Univ. Polytechnique Hauts-de-France, UMR 8520 - IEMN, F-59000 Lille, France.
| | - Rabah Boukherroub
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Univ. Polytechnique Hauts-de-France, UMR 8520 - IEMN, F-59000 Lille, France.
| | - Ching-Li Tseng
- Taipei Medical University, Graduate Institute of Biomedical Materials and Tissue Engineering (GIBMTE), New Taipei City 235603, Taiwan
- Taipei Medical University, International PhD Program in Biomedical Engineering (IPBME), New Taipei City 235603, Taiwan
| | - David Devos
- University Lille, CHU-Lille, Inserm, U1172, Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, LICEND, Lille, France
| | - Thierry Burnouf
- Taipei Medical University, Graduate Institute of Biomedical Materials and Tissue Engineering (GIBMTE), New Taipei City 235603, Taiwan
- Taipei Medical University, International PhD Program in Biomedical Engineering (IPBME), New Taipei City 235603, Taiwan
| | - Winfried Neuhaus
- AIT - Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Center Health and Bioresources, Competence Unit Molecular Diagnostics, 1210 Vienna, Austria
- Laboratory for Life Sciences and Technology (LiST), Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Danube Private University, 3500 Krems, Austria
| | - Sabine Szunerits
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Univ. Polytechnique Hauts-de-France, UMR 8520 - IEMN, F-59000 Lille, France.
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Kannan RM, Pitha I, Parikh KS. A new era in posterior segment ocular drug delivery: Translation of systemic, cell-targeted, dendrimer-based therapies. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2023; 200:115005. [PMID: 37419213 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2023.115005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/09/2023]
Abstract
Vision impairment and loss due to posterior segment ocular disorders, including age-related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy, are a rapidly growing cause of disability globally. Current treatments consist primarily of intravitreal injections aimed at preventing disease progression and characterized by high cost and repeated clinic visits. Nanotechnology provides a promising platform for drug delivery to the eye, with potential to overcome anatomical and physiological barriers to provide safe, effective, and sustained treatment modalities. However, there are few nanomedicines approved for posterior segment disorders, and fewer that target specific cells or that are compatible with systemic administration. Targeting cell types that mediate these disorders via systemic administration may unlock transformative opportunities for nanomedicine and significantly improve patient access, acceptability, and outcomes. We highlight the development of hydroxyl polyamidoamine dendrimer-based therapeutics that demonstrate ligand-free cell targeting via systemic administration and are under clinical investigation for treatment of wet age-related macular degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rangaramanujam M Kannan
- Center for Nanomedicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Departments of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering and Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Ian Pitha
- Center for Nanomedicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Glaucoma Center of Excellence, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Kunal S Parikh
- Center for Nanomedicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Center for Bioengineering Innovation & Design, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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3
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Yao H, Xu H, Wu M, Lei W, Li L, Liu D, Wang Z, Ran H, Ma H, Zhou X. Targeted long-term noninvasive treatment of choroidal neovascularization by biodegradable nanoparticles. Acta Biomater 2023; 166:536-551. [PMID: 37196903 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2023.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is the main cause of vision loss in patients with wet age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Currently, treatment of these conditions requires repeated intravitreal injections, which may lead to complications such as infection and hemorrhage. So, we have developed a noninvasive method for treating CNV with nanoparticles, namely, Angiopoietin1-anti CD105-PLGA nanoparticles (AAP NPs), which targets the CNV to enhance drug accumulation at the site. These nanoparticles, with PLGA as a carrier, can slowly release encapsulated Angiopoietin 1 (Ang 1) and target the choroidal neovascularization marker CD105 to enhance drug accumulation, increases vascular endothelial cadherin (VE-cadherin) expression between vascular endothelial cells, effectively reduce neovascularization leakage and inhibit Angiopoietin 2(Ang 2) secretion by endothelial cells. In a rat model of laser-induced CNV, intravenous injection of AAP NPs exerted a good therapeutic effect in reducing CNV leakage and area. In short, these synthetic AAP NPs provide an effective alternative treatment for AMD and meet the urgent need for noninvasive treatment in neovascular ophthalmopathy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This work describes the synthesis, injection-mediated delivery, in vitro and in vivo efficacy of targeted nanoparticles with encapsulated Ang1; via these nanoparticles, the drug can be targeted to choroidal neovascularization lesions for continuous treatment. The release of Ang1 can effectively reduce neovascularization leakage, maintain vascular stability, and inhibit Ang2 secretion and inflammation. This study provides a new approach for the treatment of wet age-related macular degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Yao
- Department of Ophthalmology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400012, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400042, China
| | - Huan Xu
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400042, China
| | - Mingxing Wu
- Department of Ophthalmology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400012, China
| | - Wulong Lei
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400042, China
| | - Lanjiao Li
- Department of Ophthalmology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400012, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400042, China
| | - Danning Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400012, China
| | - Zhigang Wang
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging, Institute of Ultrasound Imaging, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, China
| | - Haitao Ran
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging, Institute of Ultrasound Imaging, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, China
| | - Huafeng Ma
- Department of Ophthalmology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400012, China.
| | - Xiyuan Zhou
- Department of Ophthalmology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400012, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400042, China.
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Gabai A, Zeppieri M, Finocchio L, Salati C. Innovative Strategies for Drug Delivery to the Ocular Posterior Segment. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:1862. [PMID: 37514050 PMCID: PMC10385847 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15071862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Innovative and new drug delivery systems (DDSs) have recently been developed to vehicle treatments and drugs to the ocular posterior segment and the retina. New formulations and technological developments, such as nanotechnology, novel matrices, and non-traditional treatment strategies, open new perspectives in this field. The aim of this mini-review is to highlight promising strategies reported in the current literature based on innovative routes to overcome the anatomical and physiological barriers of the vitreoretinal structures. The paper also describes the challenges in finding appropriate and pertinent treatments that provide safety and efficacy and the problems related to patient compliance, acceptability, effectiveness, and sustained drug delivery. The clinical application of these experimental approaches can help pave the way for standardizing the use of DDSs in developing enhanced treatment strategies and personalized therapeutic options for ocular pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Gabai
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy
| | - Marco Zeppieri
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy
| | - Lucia Finocchio
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy
- Department of Ophthalmology, Nuovo Ospedale Santo Stefano, 59100 Prato, Italy
| | - Carlo Salati
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy
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Tawfik M, Chen F, Goldberg JL, Sabel BA. Nanomedicine and drug delivery to the retina: current status and implications for gene therapy. NAUNYN-SCHMIEDEBERG'S ARCHIVES OF PHARMACOLOGY 2022; 395:1477-1507. [PMID: 36107200 PMCID: PMC9630211 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-022-02287-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Blindness affects more than 60 million people worldwide. Retinal disorders, including age-related macular degeneration (AMD), diabetic retinopathy (DR), and glaucoma, are the leading causes of blindness. Finding means to optimize local and sustained delivery of drugs or genes to the eye and retina is one goal to advance the development of new therapeutics. Despite the ease of accessibility of delivering drugs via the ocular surface, the delivery of drugs to the retina is still challenging due to anatomic and physiologic barriers. Designing a suitable delivery platform to overcome these barriers should enhance drug bioavailability and provide a safe, controlled, and sustained release. Current inventions for posterior segment treatments include intravitreal implants and subretinal viral gene delivery that satisfy these criteria. Several other novel drug delivery technologies, including nanoparticles, micelles, dendrimers, microneedles, liposomes, and nanowires, are now being widely studied for posterior segment drug delivery, and extensive research on gene delivery using siRNA, mRNA, or aptamers is also on the rise. This review discusses the current state of retinal drug/gene delivery and highlights future therapeutic opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Tawfik
- Institute of Medical Psychology, Medical Faculty, Otto-Von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Fang Chen
- Spencer Center for Vision Research, Byers Eye Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Jeffrey L Goldberg
- Spencer Center for Vision Research, Byers Eye Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Bernhard A Sabel
- Institute of Medical Psychology, Medical Faculty, Otto-Von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany.
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Scheive M, Yazdani S, Hajrasouliha AR. The utility and risks of therapeutic nanotechnology in the retina. Ther Adv Ophthalmol 2021; 13:25158414211003381. [PMID: 33817552 PMCID: PMC7989128 DOI: 10.1177/25158414211003381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The clinical application of nanotechnology in medicine is promising for therapeutic, diagnostic, and surgical improvements in the near future. Nanotechnologies in nano-ophthalmology are in the early stages of application in clinical contexts, including ocular drug and gene delivery systems addressing eye disorders, particularly retinopathies. Retinal diseases are challenging to treat as current interventions, such as intravitreal injections, are limited by their invasive nature. This review examines nanotechnological approaches to retinal diseases in a clinical context. Nanotechnology has the potential to transform pharmacological and surgical interventions by overcoming limitations posed by the protective anatomical and physiological barriers that limit access to the retina. Preclinical research in the application of nanoparticles in diagnostics indicates that nanoparticles can enhance existing diagnostic and screening tools to detect diseases earlier and more easily and improve disease progression monitoring precision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Scheive
- Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Saeed Yazdani
- Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Amir R Hajrasouliha
- Assistant Professor of Ophthalmology, Eugene and Marilyn Glick Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1160 W Michigan St., Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
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Reichl U, Seidel‐Morgenstern A, Sundmacher K, Tsotsas E, van Wachem B. Forschungsarbeiten am Institut für Verfahrenstechnik der Otto‐von‐Guericke‐Universität Magdeburg. CHEM-ING-TECH 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/cite.202100002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Udo Reichl
- Otto von-Guericke Universität Magdeburg Institut für Verfahrenstechnik Universitätsplatz 2 39106 Magdeburg Deutschland
| | - Andreas Seidel‐Morgenstern
- Otto von-Guericke Universität Magdeburg Institut für Verfahrenstechnik Universitätsplatz 2 39106 Magdeburg Deutschland
| | - Kai Sundmacher
- Otto von-Guericke Universität Magdeburg Institut für Verfahrenstechnik Universitätsplatz 2 39106 Magdeburg Deutschland
| | - Evangelos Tsotsas
- Otto von-Guericke Universität Magdeburg Institut für Verfahrenstechnik Universitätsplatz 2 39106 Magdeburg Deutschland
| | - Berend van Wachem
- Otto von-Guericke Universität Magdeburg Institut für Verfahrenstechnik Universitätsplatz 2 39106 Magdeburg Deutschland
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Wang R, Gao Y, Liu A, Zhai G. A review of nanocarrier-mediated drug delivery systems for posterior segment eye disease: challenges analysis and recent advances. J Drug Target 2021; 29:687-702. [PMID: 33474998 DOI: 10.1080/1061186x.2021.1878366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Posterior segment eye disease is a leading cause of irreversible vision impairment and blindness. As the unique organ for vision, eyes are protected by various protective barriers. The existence of physiological barriers and elimination mechanisms makes it challenging to treat the posterior segment eye diseases. To achieve efficient drug delivery to the posterior segment of eyes, different drug delivery systems have been proposed. Due to their abilities to enhance ocular tissue permeability, make controlled drug release and target retina, nanocarriers, such as lipid nanoparticles, liposomes and polymeric nanomicelles, have been widely studied for posterior segment drug delivery. However, clinical applications of nanocarrier mediated drug delivery systems as non-invasive ocular drops is still not ready. The delivery of nanocarrier-mediated drug for posterior segment disease still faces the choice of being more effective or more invasive for long-term treatment. Therefore, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of the barriers and the routes of ocular drug delivery while developing the delivery systems. In this review, types of ocular barriers and drug administration routes are categorised in a more intuitive way. Recent advances in nanocarrier mediated drug delivery systems with focus on posterior segment are reviewed with illustrative examples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Yuan Gao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Anchang Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Guangxi Zhai
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan, China
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You Q, Sabel BA. Nanoparticles as a tool to deliver drugs to the retina and brain: an update. Neural Regen Res 2021; 16:283-284. [PMID: 32859776 PMCID: PMC7896206 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.290886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Qing You
- Institute of Medical Psychology, Otto-von-Guericke University of Magdeburg, Medical Faculty, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Bernhard A Sabel
- Institute of Medical Psychology, Otto-von-Guericke University of Magdeburg, Medical Faculty, Magdeburg, Germany
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Tawfik M, Zhang X, Grigartzik L, Heiduschka P, Hintz W, Henrich-Noack P, van Wachem B, Sabel BA. Gene therapy with caspase-3 small interfering RNA-nanoparticles is neuroprotective after optic nerve damage. Neural Regen Res 2021; 16:2534-2541. [PMID: 33907045 PMCID: PMC8374570 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.313068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Apoptosis, a key mechanism of programmed cell death, is triggered by caspase-3 protein and lowering its levels with gene therapy may rescue cell death after central nervous system damage. We developed a novel, non-viral gene therapy to block caspase-3 gene expression using small interfering RNA (siRNA) delivered by polybutylcyanoacrylate nanoparticles (CaspNPs). In vitro CaspNPs significantly blocked caspase-3 protein expression in C6 cells, and when injected intraocularly in vivo, CaspNPs lowered retinal capsase-3 immunofluorescence by 57.9% in rats with optic nerve crush. Longitudinal, repeated retinal ganglion cell counts using confocal neuroimaging showed that post-traumatic cell loss after intraocular CaspNPs injection was only 36.1% versus 63.4% in lesioned controls. Because non-viral gene therapy with siRNA-nanoparticles can selectively silence caspace-3 gene expression and block apoptosis in post-mitotic neurons, siRNA delivery with nanoparticles may be promising for neuroprotection or restoration of central visual system damage and other neurological disorders. The animal study procedures were approved by the German National Act on the use of experimental animals (Ethic Committee Referat Verbraucherschutz, Veterinärangelegenheiten; Landesverwaltungsamt Sachsen-Anhalt, Halle, Germany, # IMP/G/01-1150/12 and # IMP/G/01-1469/17).
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Tawfik
- Institute of Medical Psychology, Otto von Guericke University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Xiwei Zhang
- Institute of Process Engineering, Otto von Guericke University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Lisa Grigartzik
- Institute of Medical Psychology, Otto von Guericke University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Peter Heiduschka
- Department of Ophthalmology, Münster University Hospital, Münster, Germany
| | - Werner Hintz
- Institute of Process Engineering, Otto von Guericke University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Petra Henrich-Noack
- Institute of Medical Psychology, Otto von Guericke University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg; Department of Neurology with Institute of Translational Neurology, Münster University Hospital, Münster, Germany
| | - Berend van Wachem
- Institute of Process Engineering, Otto von Guericke University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Bernhard A Sabel
- Institute of Medical Psychology, Otto von Guericke University of Magdeburg; Center of Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), Magdeburg, Germany
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Sharifi S, Caracciolo G, Mahmoudi M. Biomolecular Corona Affects Controlled Release of Drug Payloads from Nanocarriers. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2020; 41:641-652. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2020.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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