Surgical Tumor-Derived Photothermal Nanovaccine for Personalized Cancer Therapy and Prevention

Turning foes to friends: Advanced "in situ nanovaccine" with dual immunoregulation for enhanced immunotherapy of metastatic triple-negative breast cancer

As a "cold tumor", triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) exhibits limited responsiveness to current immunotherapy. How to enhance the immunogenicity and reverse the immunosuppressive microenvironment of TNBC remain a formidable challenge. Herein, an "in situ nanovaccine" Au/CuNDs-R848 was designed for imaging-guided photothermal therapy (PTT)/chemodynamic therapy (CDT) synergistic therapy to trigger dual immunoregulatory effects on TNBC. On the one hand, Au/CuNDs-R848 served as a promising photothermal agent and nanozyme, achieving PTT and photothermal-enhanced CDT against the primary tumor of TNBC. Meanwhile, the released antigens and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) promoted the maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) and facilitated the infiltration of T lymphocytes. Thus, Au/CuNDs-R848 played a role as an "in situ nanovaccine" to enhance the immunogenicity of TNBC by inducing immunogenic cell death (ICD). On the other hand, the nanovaccine suppressed the myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), thereby reversing the immunosuppressive microenvironment. Through the dual immunoregulation, "cold tumor" was transformed into a "hot tumor", not only implementing a "turning foes to friends" therapeutic strategy but also enhancing immunotherapy against metastatic TNBC. Furthermore, Au/CuNDs-R848 acted as an excellent nanoprobe, enabling high-resolution near-infrared fluorescence and computed tomography imaging for precise visualization of TNBC. This feature offers potential applications in clinical cancer detection and surgical guidance. Collectively, this work provides an effective strategy for enhancing immune response and offers novel insights into the potential clinical applications for tumor immunotherapy.

Manganese oxide-constructed multifunctional biomimetic nanovaccine for robust tumor-specific T cell priming and chemodynamic therapy

The development of manganese oxide-based chemodynamic immunotherapy is emerging as a key strategy against solid tumors. However, the limited efficacy of nanoplatform in inducing efficient tumor therapeutic effects and creating the prominent antitumor immune responses remains a crucial issue. In this study, we construct a novel multifunctional biomimetic nanovaccine comprising manganese oxide-loaded poly(2-diisopropylaminoethyl methacrylate) (MP) nanoparticles and a coating layer of hybrid cell membrane (RHM) derived from manganese oxide-remodeled 4T1 cells and dendritic cells (DCs) (collectively called MP@RHM) for combination chemodynamic immunotherapy. Compared with the nanovaccines coated with the single cell membrane, the MP@RHM nanovaccine highly efficiently activates both DCs and T cells to boost tumor-specific T cell, owing to the synergistic effects of abundant damage-associated molecular patterns, Mn2+, and T cell-stimulating moieties. Upon peritumoral injection, the MP@RHM nanovaccine targets both the tumor site for focused chemodynamic therapy and the lymph nodes for robust tumor-specific T cell priming, thereby achieving highly efficient chemodynamic immunotherapy. Moreover, as a preventive cancer nanovaccine, MP@RHM generates strong immunological memory to inhibit postoperative tumor metastasis and recurrence. Our study findings highlight a promising approach to construct a multifunctional biomimetic nanovaccine for personalized chemodynamic immunotherapy against solid tumors.

Immunological nanomaterials to combat cancer metastasis

Metastasis causes greater than 90% of cancer-associated deaths, presenting huge challenges for detection and efficient treatment of cancer due to its high heterogeneity and widespread dissemination to various organs. Therefore, it is imperative to combat cancer metastasis, which is the key to achieving complete cancer eradication. Immunotherapy as a systemic approach has shown promising potential to combat metastasis. However, current clinical immunotherapies are not effective for all patients or all types of cancer metastases owing to insufficient immune responses. In recent years, immunological nanomaterials with intrinsic immunogenicity or immunomodulatory agents with efficient loading have been shown to enhance immune responses to eliminate metastasis. In this review, we would like to summarize various types of immunological nanomaterials against metastasis. Moreover, this review will summarize a series of immunological nanomaterial-mediated immunotherapy strategies to combat metastasis, including immunogenic cell death, regulation of chemokines and cytokines, improving the immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment, activation of the STING pathway, enhancing cytotoxic natural killer cell activity, enhancing antigen presentation of dendritic cells, and enhancing chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy. Furthermore, the synergistic anti-metastasis strategies based on the combinational use of immunotherapy and other therapeutic modalities will also be introduced. In addition, the nanomaterial-mediated imaging techniques (e.g., optical imaging, magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, photoacoustic imaging, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, radionuclide imaging, etc.) for detecting metastasis and monitoring anti-metastasis efficacy are also summarized. Finally, the current challenges and future prospects of immunological nanomaterial-based anti-metastasis are also elucidated with the intention to accelerate its clinical translation.

Engineering customized nanovaccines for enhanced cancer immunotherapy

Nanovaccines have gathered significant attention for their potential to elicit tumor-specific immunological responses. Despite notable progress in tumor immunotherapy, nanovaccines still encounter considerable challenges such as low delivery efficiency, limited targeting ability, and suboptimal efficacy. With an aim of addressing these issues, engineering customized nanovaccines through modification or functionalization has emerged as a promising approach. These tailored nanovaccines not only enhance antigen presentation, but also effectively modulate immunosuppression within the tumor microenvironment. Specifically, they are distinguished by their diverse sizes, shapes, charges, structures, and unique physicochemical properties, along with targeting ligands. These features of nanovaccines facilitate lymph node accumulation and activation/regulation of immune cells. This overview of bespoke nanovaccines underscores their potential in both prophylactic and therapeutic applications, offering insights into their future development and role in cancer immunotherapy.

Electrically activated polymetallic nanocrystals for long-term tumor suppression via oxygen-independent ROS generation and electro-immunotherapy

The low oxidation level and immunosuppressive microenvironment within hypoxic tumor tissue are critical factors contributing to the inefficacy of various anti-tumor strategies. Herein, we have designed a novel intravenous injection nanoplatform to conduct electro-immunotherapy, based on phospholipid-modified PtPd nanocrystals loaded with the immunoregulator IPI549 (LP@Pt-Pd@IPI549 nanoparticles, LPPI). LPPI responds to reactive oxygen species (ROS), triggering a cascade of therapeutic effects that overcome hypoxia-related resistance and effectively eradicate hypoxic tumors. Firstly, under electric field exposure, LPPI relied on water rather than oxygen to generate abundant ROS under hypoxic conditions for tumor electrodynamic therapy (EDT). Moreover, the generated ROS further induced the disintegration of the outer phospholipid membrane of LPPI, leading to the release of the immunoregulator and inhibition of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), triggering cascade immune responses. Additionally, the immunomodulatory effects of IPI549, in synergy with the immunogenic cell death (ICD) induced by EDT, reversed the immunosuppressive microenvironment contributing to tumor resistance. In summary, EDT transiently killed tumor cells while simultaneously generating antigen release, instigating an adaptive immune response for electro-immunotherapy, resulting in a potent and long-lasting tumor inhibition effect.

Precise control methods of the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles for personalized medicine

Biomedical applications of nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted much attention. With the advancement of personalized medicine, researchers are now proposing the concept that the design of NPs needs to be optimized according to the individual patient. To realize this concept, an important question is how precisely we can tailor the physicochemical properties of NPs, such as size, shape, and surface chemistry, using current technology. This review discusses recent advances and challenges in the precise control of the size, shape, and surface chemistry of NPs. While control methods have advanced significantly over the past 20 years, the size, shape, and surface chemistry of currently available NPs vary by type, requiring careful selection based on the targeted disease, organ, and patient.

Cell membrane coated nanoparticles as a biomimetic drug delivery platform for enhancing cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy, a burgeoning modality for cancer treatment, operates by activating the autoimmune system to impede the growth of malignant cells. Although numerous immunotherapy strategies have been employed in clinical cancer therapy, the resistance of cancer cells to immunotherapeutic medications and other apprehensions impede the attainment of sustained advantages for most patients. Recent advancements in nanotechnology for drug delivery hold promise in augmenting the efficacy of immunotherapy. However, the efficacy is currently constrained by the inadequate specificity of delivery, low rate of response, and the intricate immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. In this context, the investigation of cell membrane coated nanoparticles (CMNPs) has revealed their ability to perform targeted delivery, immune evasion, controlled release, and immunomodulation. By combining the advantageous features of natural cell membranes and nanoparticles, CMNPs have demonstrated their unique potential in the realm of cancer immunotherapy. This review aims to emphasize recent research progress and elucidate the underlying mechanisms of CMNPs as an innovative drug delivery platform for enhancing cancer immunotherapy. Additionally, it provides a comprehensive overview of the current immunotherapeutic strategies involving different cell membrane types of CMNPs, with the intention of further exploration and optimization.

Metabolic Regulation-Mediated Reversion of the Tumor Immunosuppressive Microenvironment for Potentiating Cooperative Metabolic Therapy and Immunotherapy

Tumor cells exhibit heightened glucose (Glu) consumption and increased lactic acid (LA) production, resulting in the formation of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) that facilitates malignant proliferation and metastasis. In this study, we meticulously engineer an antitumor nanoplatform, denoted as ZLGCR, by incorporating glucose oxidase, LA oxidase, and CpG oligodeoxynucleotide into zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 that is camouflaged with a red blood cell membrane. Significantly, ZLGCR-mediated consumption of Glu and LA not only amplifies the effectiveness of metabolic therapy but also reverses the immunosuppressive TME, thereby enhancing the therapeutic outcomes of CpG-mediated antitumor immunotherapy. It is particularly important that the synergistic effect of metabolic therapy and immunotherapy is further augmented when combined with immune checkpoint blockade therapy. Consequently, this engineered antitumor nanoplatform will achieve a cooperative tumor-suppressive outcome through the modulation of metabolism and immune responses within the TME.

Hit-and-run vaccine system that overcomes limited neoantigen epitopes for efficient broad antitumor response

Neoantigen cancer vaccines have been envisioned as one of the most promising means for cancer therapies. However, identifying neoantigens for tumor types with low tumor mutation burdens continues to limit the effectiveness of neoantigen vaccines. Herein, we proposed a "hit-and-run" vaccine strategy which primes T cells to attack tumor cells decorated with exogenous "neo-antigens". This vaccine strategy utilizes a peptide nanovaccine to elicit antigen-specific T cell responses after tumor-specific decoration with a nanocarrier containing the same peptide antigens. We demonstrated that a poly(2-oxazoline)s (POx) conjugated with OVA257-264 peptide through a matrix metalloprotease 2 (MMP-2) sensitive linker could efficiently and selectively decorate tumor cells with OVA peptides in vivo. Then, a POx-based nanovaccine containing OVA257-264 peptides to elicit OVA-specific T cell responses was designed. In combination with this hit-and-run vaccine system, an effective vaccine therapy was demonstrated across tumor types even without OVA antigen expression. This approach provides a promising and uniform vaccine strategy against tumors with a low tumor mutation burden.

Advancing nanotechnology for neoantigen-based cancer theranostics

Neoantigens play a pivotal role in the field of tumour therapy, encompassing the stimulation of anti-tumour immune response and the enhancement of tumour targeting capability. Nonetheless, numerous factors directly influence the effectiveness of neoantigens in bolstering anti-tumour immune responses, including neoantigen quantity and specificity, uptake rates by antigen-presenting cells (APCs), residence duration within the tumour microenvironment (TME), and their ability to facilitate the maturation of APCs for immune response activation. Nanotechnology assumes a significant role in several aspects, including facilitating neoantigen release, promoting neoantigen delivery to antigen-presenting cells, augmenting neoantigen uptake by dendritic cells, shielding neoantigens from protease degradation, and optimizing interactions between neoantigens and the immune system. Consequently, the development of nanotechnology synergistically enhances the efficacy of neoantigens in cancer theranostics. In this review, we provide an overview of neoantigen sources, the mechanisms of neoantigen-induced immune responses, and the evolution of precision neoantigen-based nanomedicine. This encompasses various therapeutic modalities, such as neoantigen-based immunotherapy, phototherapy, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, chemodynamic therapy, and other strategies tailored to augment precision in cancer therapeutics. We also discuss the current challenges and prospects in the application of neoantigen-based precision nanomedicine, aiming to expedite its clinical translation.

Unlocking the power of nanomedicine: Cell membrane-derived biomimetic cancer nanovaccines for cancer treatment

Over the past decades, nanomedicine researchers have dedicated their efforts to developing nanoscale platforms capable of more precisely delivering drug payloads to attack tumors. Cancer nanovaccines are exhibiting a distinctive capability in inducing tumor-specific antitumor responses. Nevertheless, there remain numerous challenges that must be addressed for cancer nanovaccines to evoke sufficient therapeutic effects. Cell membrane-derived nanovaccines are an emerging class of cancer vaccines that comprise a synthetic nanoscale core camouflaged by naturally derived cell membranes. The specific cell membrane has a biomimetic nanoformulation with several distinctive abilities, such as immune evasion, enhanced biocompatibility, and tumor targeting, typically associated with a source cell. Here, we discuss the advancements of cell membrane-derived nanovaccines and how these vaccines are used for cancer therapeutics. Translational endeavors are currently in progress, and additional research is also necessary to effectively address crucial areas of demand, thereby facilitating the future successful translation of these emerging vaccine platforms.

Preimmunization with Listeria-vectored cervical cancer vaccine candidate strains can establish specific T-cell immune memory and prevent tumorigenesis

BACKGROUND

Although HPV prophylactic vaccines can provide effective immune protection against high-risk HPV infection, studies have shown that the protective effect provided by them would decrease with the increased age of vaccination, and they are not recommended for those who are not in the appropriate age range for vaccination. Therefore, in those people who are not suitable for HPV prophylactic vaccines, it is worth considering establishing memory T-cell immunity to provide long-term immune surveillance and generate a rapid response against lesional cells to prevent tumorigenesis.

METHODS

In this study, healthy mice were preimmunized with LM∆E6E7 and LI∆E6E7, the two Listeria-vectored cervical cancer vaccine candidate strains constructed previously by our laboratory, and then inoculated with tumor cells 40 d later.

RESULTS

The results showed that preimmunization with LM∆E6E7 and LI∆E6E7 could establish protective memory T-cell immunity against tumor antigens in mice, which effectively eliminate tumor cells. 60% of mice preimmunized with vaccines did not develop tumors, and for the remaining mice, tumor growth was significantly inhibited. We found that preimmunization with vaccines may exert antitumor effects by promoting the enrichment of T cells at tumor site to exert specific immune responses, as well as inhibiting intratumoral angiogenesis and cell proliferation.

CONCLUSION

Altogether, this study suggests that preimmunization with LM∆E6E7 and LI∆E6E7 can establish memory T-cell immunity against tumor antigens in vivo, which provides a viable plan for preventing tumorigenesis and inhibiting tumor progression.

Nanocodelivery of an NIR photothermal agent and an acid-responsive TLR7 agonist prodrug to enhance cancer photothermal immunotherapy and the abscopal effect

The immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) greatly limits the actual outcome of immunotherapy. Therefore, it is urgent to develop appropriate strategies to reshape the TME and ultimately induce a strong immune response. Here, we developed a dual-functional liposome loaded with the photothermal agent IR808 near the infrared region (NIR) and Toll-like-receptor-7 (TLR7) agonist loxoribine prodrug (Lipo@IR808@Loxo) to achieve NIR light-triggered photothermal therapy (PTT) and the targeted delivery of immune adjuvants. Under NIR irradiation, Lipo@IR808@Loxo could greatly improve the efficiency of PTT to directly kill tumor cells and release tumor-associated antigens, which could work together with loaded loxoribine to relieve the immunosuppressive TME, effectively promoting the activation of antigen-presenting cells and subsequent antigen presentation. In this way, Lipo@IR808@Loxo could act as an in situ therapeutic cancer vaccine, eventually inducing a potent antitumor T-cell response. When further combined with immune checkpoint blockade, Lipo@IR808@Loxo-mediated photothermal immunotherapy could not only eliminate the primary tumors but also inhibit the growth of distant tumors, thus enhancing the abscopal effect.

Immunoactivity of a hybrid membrane biosurface on nanoparticles: enhancing interactions with dendritic cells to augment anti-tumor immune responses

Nano-biointerfaces play a pivotal role in determining the functionality of engineered therapeutic nanoparticles, particularly in the context of designing nanovaccines to effectively activate immune cells for cancer immunotherapy. Unlike involving chemical reactions by conventional surface decorating strategies, cell membrane-coating technology offers a straightforward approach to endow nanoparticles with natural biosurfaces, enabling them to mimic and integrate into the intricate biosystems of the body to interact with specific cells under physiological conditions. In this study, cell membranes, in a hybrid formulation, derived from cancer and activated macrophage cells were found to enhance the interaction of nanoparticles (HMP) with dendritic cells (DCs) and T cells among the mixed immune cells from lymph nodes (LNs), which could be leveraged in the development of nanovaccines for anti-tumor therapy. After loading with an adjuvant (R837), the nanoparticles coated with a hybrid membrane (HMPR) demonstrated effectiveness in priming DCs both in vitro and in vivo, resulting in amplified anti-tumor immune responses compared to those of nanoparticles coated with a single type of membrane or those lacking a membrane coating. The elevated immunoactivity of nanoparticles achieved by incorporating a hybrid membrane biosurface provides us a more profound comprehension of the nano-immune interaction, which may significantly benefit the development of bioactive nanomaterials for advanced therapy.

A Twindrive Precise Delivery System of Platelet-Neutrophil Hybrid Membrane Regulates Macrophage Combined with CD47 Blocking for Postoperative Immunotherapy

During wound healing after cancer surgery, platelets, neutrophils, and macrophages accumulate at the wound site and induce important pathophysiological features. Utilizing these pathophysiological features, the development of targeted delivery systems for postoperative tumor immunotherapy is an important strategy. Herein, a twindrive precise delivery system of hybrid membrane combined with CD47 blocking is developed for targeted delivery and targeted regulation to induce postoperative immunotherapy. The precise delivery system consists of IR820-modified platelet-neutrophil hybrid membranes loaded with R848 nanoparticles. Based on the pathological characteristics of platelet aggregation and neutrophil tendency caused by the wound inflammatory microenvironment after tumor surgery, the twindrive delivery system could achieve targeted delivery and targeted regulation of immune drugs to tumor sites. After precise delivery guided by fluorescence imaging, R848 is targeted to reprogram M2 macrophages into M1 macrophages, stimulate dendritic cell maturation as an adjuvant, and then activate T cell immunity. R848 polarization and CD47 blockade together enhanced the phagocytosis function of macrophages, which combined with T cell-mediated cellular immune response to finally effectively inhibit postsurgical tumor recurrence, metastasis, and prolonged survival time. It develops a targeted delivery and regulatory system for cell-specific responses to the pathophysiological features of wound healing for postoperative immunotherapy.

Cancer Cell Membrane-Based Materials for Biomedical Applications

The nanodelivery system provides a novel direction for disease diagnosis and treatment; however, its delivery effectiveness is restricted by the short biological half-life and inadequate tumor targeting. The immune evasion properties and homologous targeting capabilities of natural cell membranes, particularly those of cancer cell membranes (CCM), have gained significant interest. The integration of CCM and nanoparticles has resulted in the emergence of CCM-based nanoplatforms (CCM-NPs), which have gained significant attention due to their unique properties. CCM-NPs not only prolong the blood circulation time of core nanoparticles, but also direct them for homologous tumor targeting. Herein, the history and development of CCM-NPs as well as how these platforms have been used for biomedical applications are discussed. The application of CCM-NPs for cancer therapy will be described in detail. Translational efforts are currently under way and further research to address key areas of need will ultimately be required to facilitate the successful clinical adoption of CCM-NPs.

Research progress of organic photothermal agents delivery and synergistic therapy systems

Cancer is currently one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Due to the inevitable shortcomings of conventional treatments, photothermal therapy (PTT) has attracted great attention as an emerging and non-invasive cancer treatment method. Photothermal agents (PTAs) is a necessary component of PTT to play its role. It accumulates at the tumor site through appropriate methods and converts the absorbed light energy into heat energy effectively under near-infrared light irradiation, thus increasing the temperature of the tumor area and facilitating ablation of the tumor cells. Compared to inorganic photothermal agents, which have limitations such as non-degradability and potential long-term toxicity in vivo, organic photothermal agents exhibit excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability, thus showing promising prospects for the application of PTT in cancer treatment. And these organic photothermal agents can also be engineered into nanoparticles to improve their water solubility, extend their circulation time in vivo, and specifically target tumors. Moreover, further combination of PTT with other treatment methods can effectively enhance the efficacy of cancer treatment and alleviate the side effects associated with single treatments. This article briefly introduces several common types of organic photothermal agents and their nanoparticles, and reviews the applications of PTT based on organic photothermal agents in combination with chemotherapy, photodynamic therapy, chemodynamic therapy, immunotherapy, and multimodal combination therapy for tumor treatment, which expands the ideas and methods in the field of tumor treatment.

Multifunctional ZnO@DOX/ICG-LMHP Nanoparticles for Synergistic Multimodal Antitumor Activity

Multifunctional nanoparticles are of significant importance for synergistic multimodal antitumor activity. Herein, zinc oxide (ZnO) was used as pH-sensitive nanoparticles for loading the chemotherapy agent doxorubicin (DOX) and the photosensitizer agent indocyanine green (ICG), and biocompatible low-molecular-weight heparin (LMHP) was used as the gatekeepers for synergistic photothermal therapy/photodynamic therapy/chemotherapy/immunotherapy. ZnO was decomposed into cytotoxic Zn2+ ions, leading to a tumor-specific release of ICG and DOX. ZnO simultaneously produced oxygen (O2) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) for photodynamic therapy (PDT). The released ICG under laser irradiation produced ROS for PDT and raised the tumor temperature for photothermal therapy (PTT). The released DOX directly caused tumor cell death for chemotherapy. Both DOX and ICG also induced immunogenic cell death (ICD) for immunotherapy. The in vivo and in vitro results presented a superior inhibition of tumor progression, metastasis and recurrence. Therefore, this study could provide an efficient approach for designing multifunctional nanoparticles for synergistic multimodal antitumor therapy.

Immunoadjuvant-Modified Rhodobacter sphaeroides Potentiate Cancer Photothermal Immunotherapy

Photothermal immunotherapy has become a promising strategy for tumor treatment. However, the intrinsic drawbacks like light instability, poor immunoadjuvant effect, and poor accumulation of conventional inorganic or organic photothermal agents limit their further applications. Based on the superior carrying capacity and active tumor targeting property of living bacteria, an immunoadjuvant-intensified and engineered tumor-targeting bacterium was constructed to achieve effective photothermal immunotherapy. Specifically, immunoadjuvant imiquimod (R837)-loaded thermosensitive liposomes (R837@TSL) were covalently decorated onto Rhodobacter sphaeroides (R.S) to obtain nanoimmunoadjuvant-armed bacteria (R.S-R837@TSL). The intrinsic photothermal property of R.S combined R837@TSL to achieve in situ near-infrared (NIR) laser-controlled release of R837. Meanwhile, tumor immunogenic cell death (ICD) caused by photothermal effect of R.S-R837@TSL, synergizes with released immunoadjuvants to promote maturation of dendritic cells (DCs), which enhance cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) infiltration for further tumor eradication. The photosynthetic bacteria armed with immunoadjuvant-loaded liposomes provide a strategy for immunoadjuvant-enhanced cancer photothermal immunotherapy.

Injectable Zwitterionic Physical Hydrogel with Enhanced Chemodynamic Therapy and Tumor Microenvironment Remodeling Properties for Synergistic Anticancer Therapy

Surgical resection is the first-line therapy for breast cancer. However, residual tumor cells and the highly immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) continue to have a serious impact on tumor recurrence and metastasis postresection. Implantation of an in situ hydrogel system postresection has shown to be an effective treatment with great clinical potential. Herein, an injectable zwitterionic hydrogel system was developed for local drug delivery with enhanced immune activation and prevention of tumor recurrence. Driven by electrostatic interactions, poly(sulfobetaine methacrylate) (PSBMA) self-assembles into a hydrogel in saline, achieving low protein adsorption and tunable biodegradability. The chemotherapy drug doxorubicin (DOX) was loaded into copper peroxide nanoparticles (CuO2/DOX), which were coated with macrophage membranes to form tumor-targeting nanoparticles (M/CuO2/DOX). Next, M/CuO2/DOX and the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) agonist 2',3'-cGAMP were coloaded into PSBMA hydrogel (Gel@M/CuO2/DOX/STING). The hydrophilic STING agonist was first released by diffusion from hydrogel to activate the STING pathway and upregulate interferon (IFN) signaling related genes, remodeling the immunosuppressive TME. Then, M/CuO2/DOX targeted the residual tumor cells, combining with DOX-induced DNA damage, immunogenic tumor cell death, and copper death. Hence, this work combines chemodynamic therapy with STING pathway activation in TME, encouraging residual tumor cell death, promoting the maturation of dendritic cells, enhancing tumor-specific CD8+ T cell infiltration, and preventing postoperative recurrence and metastasis.

The dual nature of biomimetic melanin

Melanin-inspired nanomaterials offer unique photophysical, electronic and radical scavenging properties that are widely explored for health and environmental preservation, or energy conversion and storage. The incorporation of functional melanin building blocks in more complex nanostructures or surfaces is typically achieved via a bottom-up approach starting from a molecular precursor, in most cases dopamine. Here we demonstrate that indeed, the oxidative polymerization of dopamine, for the synthesis of melanin-like polydopamine (PDA), leads to the simultaneous formation of more than one nanosized species with different compositions, morphologies and properties. In particular, a low-density polymeric structure and dense nanoparticles (NP) are simultaneously formed. The two populations could be separated and analyzed in real time using a chromatographic technique free of any stationary phase (flow field fractionation, FFF). The results following the synthesis of melanin-like PDA showed that the NP are formed only during the first 6 hours as a result of a supramolecular self-assembly-driven polymerization, while the formation of the polymer continues for about 36 hours. The two populations were also separated and characterized using TEM, UV-vis absorption spectroscopy, fluorescence and light scattering spectroscopy, DLS, FTIR, ζ-potential measurements, gel electrophoresis and pH titrations. Interestingly, very different properties between the two populations were observed: in particular the polymer contains a higher number of catechol units (8 mmol g-1 -OH) with respect to the NP (1 mmol g-1 -OH) and presents a much higher antioxidant activity. The attenuation of light by NP is more efficient than that by the polymer especially in the Vis-NIR region. Moreover, while the NP scatter light with an efficiency up to 27% they are not fluorescent, and the polymer does not scatter light but shows an excitation wavelength-dependent fluorescence typical of multi-fluorophoric uncoupled systems.

Nickel(II) Phototheranostics: A Case Study in Photoactivated H2O2-Enhanced Immunotherapy

Phototheranostics have emerged as a promising subset of cancer theranostics owing to their potential to provide precise photoinduced diagnoses and therapeutic outcomes. However, the design of phototheranostics remains challenging due to the nature of tumors and their microenvironment, including limitations to the oxygen supply, high rates of recurrence and metastasis, and the immunosuppressive state of cancer cells. Here we report a dual-functional oxygen-independent phototheranostic agent, Ni-2, rationally designed to provide a near-infrared (NIR) photoactivated thermal- and hydroxyl radical (•OH)-enhanced photoimmunotherapeutic anticancer response. Under 880 nm laser irradiation, Ni-2 exhibited high photostability and excellent photoacoustic and photothermal effects with a photothermal conversion efficacy of 58.0%, as well as novel photoredox features that allowed the catalytic conversion of H2O2 to •OH upon photooxidation of Ni(II) to Ni(III). As a multifunctional photoagent, Ni-2 was found not only to inhibit tumor growth in a CT26 tumor-bearing mouse model but also to activate an immune response via a combination of photothermal- and H2O2-induced effects. When combined with an antiprogrammed death-ligand 1 (aPD-L1), Ni-2 treatment allowed for the suppression of distant tumor growth and cancer metastasis. Collectively, the present results provide support for the proposition that Ni-2 or its analogues could emerge as useful tools for photoimmunotherapy. They also highlight the potential of appropriately designed 3d transition metal complexes as "all- in-one" phototheranostics.

Polydopamine-containing nano-systems for cancer multi-mode diagnoses and therapies: A review

Polydopamine (PDA) has fascinating properties such as inherent biocompatibility, simple preparation, strong near-infrared absorption, high photothermal conversion efficiency, and strong metal ion chelation, which have catalyzed extensive research in PDA-containing multifunctional nano-systems particularly for biomedical applications. Thus, it is imperative to overview synthetic strategies of various PDA-containing nanoparticles (NPs) for state-of-the-art cancer multi-mode diagnoses and therapies applications, and offer a timely and comprehensive summary. In this review, we will focus on the synthetic approaches of PDA NPs, and summarize the construction strategies of PDA-containing NPs with different structure forms. Additionally, the application of PDA-containing NPs in bioimaging such as photoacoustic imaging, fluorescence imaging, magnetic resonance imaging and other imaging modalities will be reviewed. We will especially offer an overview of their therapeutic applications in tumor chemotherapy, photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, photocatalytic therapy, sonodynamic therapy, radionuclide therapy, gene therapy, immunotherapy and combination therapy. At the end, the current trends, limitations and future prospects of PDA-containing nano-systems will be discussed. This review aims to provide guidelines for new scientists in the field of how to design PDA-containing NPs and what has been achieved in this area, while offering comprehensive insights into the potential of PDA-containing nano-systems used in cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Allomelanin-based biomimetic nanotherapeutics for orthotopic glioblastoma targeted photothermal immunotherapy

Immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy has shown great potential in the treatment of malignant tumors, but its therapeutic effect on glioblastoma (GBM) is unsatisfactory because of the low immunogenicity and T cell infiltration, as well as the presence of blood-brain barrier (BBB) that blocks most of ICB agents to the GBM tissues. Herein, we developed a biomimetic nanoplatform of AMNP@CLP@CCM for GBM-targeted photothermal therapy (PTT) and ICB synergistic therapy by loading immune checkpoint inhibitor CLP002 into the allomelanin nanoparticles (AMNPs) and followed by coating cancer cell membranes (CCM). The resulting AMNP@CLP@CCM can successfully cross the BBB and deliver CLP002 to GBM tissues due to the homing effect of CCM. As a natural photothermal conversion agent, AMNPs are used for tumor PTT. The increased local temperature by PTT not only enhances BBB penetration but also upregulates the PD-L1 level on GBM cells. Importantly, PTT can effectively stimulate immunogenic cell death to induce tumor-associated antigen exposure and promote T lymphocyte infiltration, which can further amplify the antitumor immune responses of GBM cells to CLP002-mediated ICB therapy, resulting in significant growth inhibition of the orthotopic GBM. Therefore, AMNP@CLP@CCM has great potential for the treatment of orthotopic GBM by PTT and ICB synergistic therapy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The effect of ICB therapy on GBM is limited by the low immunogenicity and insufficient T-cell infiltration. Here we developed a biomimetic nanoplatform of AMNP@CLP@CCM for GBM-targeted PTT and ICB synergistic therapy. In this nanoplatform, AMNPs are used as both photothermal conversion agents for PTT and nanocarriers for CLP002 delivery. PTT not only enhances BBB penetration but also upregulates the PD-L1 level on GBM cells by increasing local temperature. Additionally, PTT also induces tumor-associated antigen exposure and promotes T lymphocyte infiltration to amplify the antitumor immune responses of GBM cells to CLP002-mediated ICB therapy, resulting in significant growth inhibition of the orthotopic GBM. Thus, this nanoplatform holds great potential for orthotopic GBM treatment.

Adjuvant physiochemistry and advanced nanotechnology for vaccine development

Vaccines comprising innovative adjuvants are rapidly reaching advanced translational stages, such as the authorized nanotechnology adjuvants in mRNA vaccines against COVID-19 worldwide, offering new strategies to effectively combat diseases threatening human health. Adjuvants are vital ingredients in vaccines, which can augment the degree, extensiveness, and longevity of antigen specific immune response. The advances in the modulation of physicochemical properties of nanoplatforms elevate the capability of adjuvants in initiating the innate immune system and adaptive immunity, offering immense potential for developing vaccines against hard-to-target infectious diseases and cancer. In this review, we provide an essential introduction of the basic principles of prophylactic and therapeutic vaccination, key roles of adjuvants in augmenting and shaping immunity to achieve desired outcomes and effectiveness, and the physiochemical properties and action mechanisms of clinically approved adjuvants for humans. We particularly focus on the preclinical and clinical progress of highly immunogenic emerging nanotechnology adjuvants formulated in vaccines for cancer treatment or infectious disease prevention. We deliberate on how the immune system can sense and respond to the physicochemical cues (e.g., chirality, deformability, solubility, topology, and chemical structures) of nanotechnology adjuvants incorporated in the vaccines. Finally, we propose possible strategies to accelerate the clinical implementation of nanotechnology adjuvanted vaccines, such as in-depth elucidation of nano-immuno interactions, antigen identification and optimization by the deployment of high-dimensional multiomics analysis approaches, encouraging close collaborations among scientists from different scientific disciplines and aggressive exploration of novel nanotechnologies.

An iRGD-conjugated photothermal therapy-responsive gold nanoparticle system carrying siCDK7 induces necroptosis and immunotherapeutic responses in lung adenocarcinoma

Although immunotherapy has improved the clinical treatment of lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD), many tumors have poor responses to immunotherapy. In this study, we confirmed that high expression of Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 7 (CDK7) promoted an immunosuppressive macrophage phenotype and macrophage infiltration in LUAD. Thus, we have developed an internalizing-RGD (iRGD)-conjugated gold nanoparticle (AuNP) system which carries siCDK7 to activate the antitumor immune response. The iRGD-conjugated AuNP/siCDK7 system exhibited good tumor targeting performance and photothermal effects. The AuNP/siCDK7 system with excellent biosafety exerted a significant photothermal antitumor effect by inducing tumor cell necroptosis. Furthermore, the AuNP/siCDK7 system ameliorated the immunosuppressive microenvironment and enhanced the efficacy of anti-PD-1 treatment by increasing CD8+ T cell infiltration and decreasing M2 macrophage infiltration. Hence, this iRGD-conjugated AuNP/siCDK7 system is a potential treatment strategy for lung adenocarcinoma, which exerts its effects by triggering tumor cell necroptosis and immunotherapeutic responses.

Biomimetic Cell-Derived Nanoparticles: Emerging Platforms for Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy can significantly prevent tumor growth and metastasis by activating the autoimmune system without destroying normal cells. Although cancer immunotherapy has made some achievements in clinical cancer treatment, it is still restricted by systemic immunotoxicity, immune cell dysfunction, cancer heterogeneity, and the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (ITME). Biomimetic cell-derived nanoparticles are attracting considerable interest due to their better biocompatibility and lower immunogenicity. Moreover, biomimetic cell-derived nanoparticles can achieve different preferred biological effects due to their inherent abundant source cell-relevant functions. This review summarizes the latest developments in biomimetic cell-derived nanoparticles for cancer immunotherapy, discusses the applications of each biomimetic system in cancer immunotherapy, and analyzes the challenges for clinical transformation.

Stimuli-Responsive Polymeric Nanovaccines Toward Next-Generation Immunotherapy

The development of nanovaccines that employ polymeric delivery carriers has garnered substantial interest in therapeutic treatment of cancer and a variety of infectious diseases due to their superior biocompatibility, lower toxicity and reduced immunogenicity. Particularly, stimuli-responsive polymeric nanocarriers show great promise for delivering antigens and adjuvants to targeted immune cells, preventing antigen degradation and clearance, and increasing the uptake of specific antigen-presenting cells, thereby sustaining adaptive immune responses and improving immunotherapy for certain diseases. In this review, the most recent advances in the utilization of stimulus-responsive polymer-based nanovaccines for immunotherapeutic applications are presented. These sophisticated polymeric nanovaccines with diverse functions, aimed at therapeutic administration for disease prevention and immunotherapy, are further classified into several active domains, including pH, temperature, redox, light and ultrasound-sensitive intelligent nanodelivery systems. Finally, the potential strategies for the future design of multifunctional next-generation polymeric nanovaccines by integrating materials science with biological interface are proposed.

Special Issue: Nanotherapeutics in Women's Health Emerging Nanotechnologies for Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Treatment

Breast cancer appears as the major cause of cancer-related deaths in women, with more than 2 260 000 cases reported worldwide in 2020, resulting in 684 996 deaths. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), characterized by the absence of estrogen, progesterone, and human epidermal growth factor type 2 receptors, represents ≈20% of all breast cancers. TNBC has a highly aggressive clinical course and is more prevalent in younger women. The standard therapy for advanced TNBC is chemotherapy, but responses are often short-lived, with high rate of relapse. The lack of therapeutic targets and the limited therapeutic options confer to individuals suffering from TNBC the poorest prognosis among breast cancer patients, remaining a major clinical challenge. In recent years, advances in cancer nanomedicine provided innovative therapeutic options, as nanoformulations play an important role in overcoming the shortcomings left by conventional therapies: payload degradation and its low solubility, stability, and circulating half-life, and difficulties regarding biodistribution due to physiological and biological barriers. In this integrative review, the recent advances in the nanomedicine field for TNBC treatment, including the novel nanoparticle-, exosome-, and hybrid-based therapeutic formulations are summarized and their drawbacks and challenges are discussed for future clinical applications.

Carbon Dots and Tumor Antigen Conjugates as Nanovaccines for Elevated Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has become one of the current research hotspots. However, the deficiencies including restricted immunogenicity, insufficient antigen presentation, and low responsive rate limited their therapeutic applications. Own to the small size and excellent biocompatibility, carbon dots (CDs) can serve as nanovectors to improve the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. Herein, a tumor antigen-based nanovaccines (GMal+B16F10-Ag and GMal+CT26-Ag) by the conjugation of CDs with the tumor cell-derived antigens (B16F10-Ag and CT26-Ag) is constructed. These nanovaccines can be effectively taken up by dendritic cells (DC2.4), promote DC cell maturation, cross-present the antigen to T cells, specifically target B16F10 melanoma or CT26 colon cancers, and inhibit tumor growth distinctly. This work illustrates the promise of CDs acting as versatile carriers for antigen delivery to achieve the optimal immunotherapeutic outcomes.

Vaccine-like nanomedicine for cancer immunotherapy

The successful clinical application of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) and chimeric antigen receptor T cells (CAR-T) therapeutics has attracted extensive attention to immunotherapy, however, their drawbacks such as limited specificity, persistence and toxicity haven't met the high expectations on efficient cancer treatments. Therapeutic cancer vaccines which instruct the immune system to capture tumor specific antigens, generate long-term immune memory and specifically eliminate cancer cells gradually become the most promising strategies to eradicate tumor. However, the disadvantages of some existing vaccines such as weak immunogenicity and in vivo instability have restricted their development. Nanotechnology has been recently incorporated into vaccine fabrication and exhibited promising results for cancer immunotherapy. Nanoparticles promote the stability of vaccines, as well as enhance antigen recognition and presentation owing to their nanometer size which promotes internalization of antigens by phagocytic cells. The surface modification with targeting units further permits the delivery of vaccines to specific cells. Meanwhile, nanocarriers with adjuvant effect can improve the efficacy of vaccines. In addition to classic vaccines composed of antigens and adjuvants, the nanoparticle-mediated chemotherapy, radiotherapy and certain other therapeutics could induce the release of tumor antigens in situ, which therefore effectively simulate antitumor immune responses. Such vaccine-like nanomedicine not only kills primary tumors, but also prevents tumor recurrence and helps eliminate metastatic tumors. Herein, we introduce recent developments in nanoparticle-based delivery systems for antigen delivery and in situ antitumor vaccination. We will also discuss the remaining opportunities and challenges of nanovaccine in clinical translation towards cancer treatment.

Nanotechnology for next-generation cancer immunotherapy: State of the art and future perspectives

Over the past decade, immunotherapy aiming to activate an effective antitumor immune response has ushered in a new era of cancer treatment. However, the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy is limited by low response rates and high systemic toxicity. Nanotechnology is an encouraging platform for the development of next-generation cancer immunotherapy to effectively treat advanced cancer. Nanotechnology-enabled immunotherapy has remarkable advantages, ranging from the increased bioavailability and stability of immunotherapeutic agents to the enhanced activation of immune cells and favorable safety profiles. Nanotechnology-enabled immunotherapy can target solid tumors through reprogramming or stimulating immune cells (i.e., nanovaccines); modulating the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment; or targeting tumor cells and altering their responses to immune cells to generate effective antitumor immunity. In this Oration, I introduce the advanced strategies currently being pursued by our laboratory and other groups to improve the therapeutic efficacy of cancer immunotherapy and discuss the potential challenges and future directions.

Immunoinducible Carbon Dot-Incorporated Hydrogels as a Photothermal-Derived Antigen Depot to Trigger a Robust Antitumor Immune Response

Immunogenic tumor cell death (ICD) induced by photothermal therapy (PTT) fails to elicit a robust antitumor immune response partially due to its inherent immunosuppressive microenvironment and poor antigen presentation. To address these issues, we developed an immunoinducible carbon dot-incorporated hydrogel (iCD@Gel) through a dynamic covalent Schiff base reaction using mannose-modified aluminum-doped carbon dots (M/A-CDs) as a cross-linking agent. The M/A-CDs possessed superior photothermal conversion efficiency and served as nanocarriers to load cytosine-phosphate-guanine oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG ODNs) for inducing the maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) via mannose receptor-mediated targeting delivery. Upon intratumoral injection, the as-prepared iCD@Gel induced ICD, and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) were released via photothermal ablation under 808 nm NIR irradiation. Subsequently, the iCD@Gel synergized with the DAMPs to significantly promote the maturation and antigen cross-presentation ability of DCs. This work provides a promising strategy to develop carbon dot-based therapeutic hydrogels for photothermal therapy and immune activation.

Molecular Engineering of pH-Responsive NIR Oxazine Assemblies for Evoking Tumor Ferroptosis via Triggering Lysosomal Dysfunction

Ferroptosis, a newly discovered form of regulated cell death, is emerging as a promising approach to tumor therapy. However, the spatiotemporal control of cell-intrinsic Fenton chemistry to modulate tumor ferroptosis remains challenging. Here, we report an oxazine-based activatable molecular assembly (PTO-Biotin Nps), which is capable of triggering the lysosomal dysfunction-mediated Fenton pathway with excellent spatiotemporal resolution via near-infrared (NIR) light to evoke ferroptosis. In this system, a pH-responsive NIR photothermal oxazine molecule was designed and functionalized with a tumor-targeting hydrophilic biotin-poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) chain to engineer well-defined nanostructured assemblies within a single-molecular framework. PTO-Biotin Nps possesses a selective tropism to lysosome accumulation inside tumor cells, accommodated by its enhanced photothermal activity in the acidic microenvironment. Upon NIR light activation, PTO-Biotin Nps promoted lysosomal dysfunction and induced cytosolic acidification and impaired autophagy. More importantly, photoactivation-mediated lysosomal dysfunction via PTO-Biotin Nps was found to markedly enhance cellular Fenton reactions and evoke ferroptosis, thereby improving antitumor efficacy and mitigating systemic side effects. Overall, our study demonstrates that the molecular engineering approach of pH-responsive photothermal oxazine assemblies enables the spatiotemporal modulation of the intrinsic ferroptosis mechanism, offering a novel strategy for the development of metal-free Fenton inducers in antitumor therapy.

Overcoming Suppressive Tumor Microenvironment by Vaccines in Solid Tumor

Conventional vaccines are widely used to boost human natural ability to defend against foreign invaders, such as bacteria and viruses. Recently, therapeutic cancer vaccines attracted the most attention for anti-cancer therapy. According to the main components, it can be divided into five types: cell, DNA, RNA, peptide, and virus-based vaccines. They mainly perform through two rationales: (1) it trains the host immune system to protect itself and effectively eradicate cancer cells; (2) these vaccines expose the immune system to molecules associated with cancer that enable the immune system to recognize and destroy cancer cells. In this review, we thoroughly summarized the potential strategies and technologies for developing cancer vaccines, which may provide critical achievements for overcoming the suppressive tumor microenvironment through vaccines in solid tumors.

The Role of TRL7/8 Agonists in Cancer Therapy, with Special Emphasis on Hematologic Malignancies

Toll-like receptors (TLR) belong to the pattern recognition receptors (PRR). TLR7 and the closely correlated TLR8 affiliate with toll-like receptors family, are located in endosomes. They recognize single-stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules and synthetic deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)/RNA analogs-oligoribonucleotides. TLRs are primarily expressed in hematopoietic cells. There is compiling evidence implying that TLRs also direct the formation of blood cellular components and make a contribution to the pathogenesis of certain hematopoietic malignancies. The latest research shows a positive effect of therapy with TRL agonists on the course of hemato-oncological diseases. Ligands impact activation of antigen-presenting cells which results in production of cytokines, transfer of mentioned cells to the lymphoid tissue and co-stimulatory surface molecules expression required for T-cell activation. Toll-like receptor agonists have already been used in oncology especially in the treatment of dermatological neoplastic lesions. The usage of these substances in the treatment of solid tumors is being investigated. The present review discusses the direct and indirect influence that TLR7/8 agonists, such as imiquimod, imidazoquinolines and resiquimod have on neoplastic cells and their promising role as adjuvants in anticancer vaccines.

Supramolecular engineering of cell membrane vesicles for cancer immunotherapy

The clinical translation of nanomedicines has been strongly hampered by the limitations of delivery vehicles, promoting scientists to search for novel nanocarriers. Although cell membrane-based delivery systems have attracted extensive attention, further functionalizations are urgently desired to augment their theranostic functions. We propose a cell-friendly supramolecular strategy to engineer cell membranes utilizing cyclodextrin-based host-guest molecular recognitions to fix the defects arising from chemical and genetic modifications. In this study, the supramolecular cell membrane vesicles (SCMVs) specifically accumulate in tumors, benefiting from tumor-homing capability and the enhanced permeability and retention effect. SCMVs co-delivering indocyanine green and an indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase inhibitor effectively ablate tumors combining photodynamic therapy and immunotherapy. Driven by host-guest inclusion complexation, SCMVs successfully encapsulate resiquimod to repolarize tumor-associated macrophages into M1 phenotype, synergizing with immune checkpoint blockade therapy. This supramolecular engineering methodology based on noncovalent interactions presents a generalizable and cell-friendly tactic to develop living cell-originated nanomaterials for precise cancer therapy.

Biomimetic Nanoarchitectonics of Hollow Mesoporous Copper Oxide-Based Nanozymes with Cascade Catalytic Reaction for Near Infrared-II Reinforced Photothermal-Catalytic Therapy

Biomimetic nanozyme with natural enzyme-like activities has drawn extensive attention in cancer therapy, while its application was hindered by the limited catalytic efficacy in the complicated tumor microenvironment (TME). Herein, a hybrid biomimetic nanozyme combines polydopamine-decorated CuO with a natural enzyme of glucose oxidase (GOD), among which CuO is endowed with a high loading rate (47.1%) of GOD due to the elaborately designed hollow mesoporous structure that is constructed to maximize the cascade catalytic efficacy. In the TME, CuO could catalyze endogenous H₂O₂ into O₂ for relieving tumor hypoxia and improving the catalytic efficacy of GOD. Whereafter, the amplified glucose oxidation induces starvation therapy, and the generated H₂O₂ and H⁺ enhance the catalytic activity of CuO. Significantly, the tumor-specific chemodynamic therapy (CDT) could be realized when CuO degraded into Cu²⁺ in acidic and reductive TME. Furthermore, the photothermal therapy with high photothermal conversion efficiency (30.2%) is achieved under NIR-II laser (1064 nm) excitation, which could reinforce the generation of reactive oxygen species (•OH and •O₂^-). The TME initiates the biochemical reaction cycle of CuO, O₂, and GOD, which couples with an NIR-II-induced thermal effect to realize O₂-promoted starvation and photothermal-chemodynamic combined therapy. This hybrid biomimetic nanozyme enlightens the further development of nanozymes in multimodal cancer therapy.

Mesoporous Nanoparticles for Diagnosis and Treatment of Liver Cancer in the Era of Precise Medicine

Primary liver cancer is the seventh-most-common cancer worldwide and the fourth-leading cause of cancer mortality. In the current era of precision medicine, the diagnosis and management of liver cancer are full of challenges and prospects. Mesoporous nanoparticles are often designed as specific carriers of drugs and imaging agents because of their special morphology and physical and chemical properties. In recent years, the design of the elemental composition and morphology of mesoporous nanoparticles have greatly improved their drug-loading efficiency, biocompatibility and biodegradability. Especially in the field of primary liver cancer, mesoporous nanoparticles have been modified as highly tumor-specific imaging contrast agents and targeting therapeutic medicine. Various generations of complexes and structures have been determined for the complicated clinical management requirements. In this review, we summarize these advanced mesoporous designs in the different diagnostic and therapeutic fields of liver cancer and discuss the relevant advantages and disadvantages of transforming applications. By comparing the material properties, drug-delivery characteristics and application methods of different kinds of mesoporous materials in liver cancer, we try to help determine the most suitable drug carriers and information media for future clinical trials. We hope to improve the fabrication of biomedical mesoporous nanoparticles and provide direct evidence for specific cancer management.