Resonant Nonplasmonic Nanoparticles for Efficient Temperature-Feedback Optical Heating

Nanophotonic inspection of deep-subwavelength integrated optoelectronic chips

Artificial nanostructures with ultrafine and deep-subwavelength features have emerged as a paradigm-shifting platform to advanced light-field management, becoming key building blocks for high-performance integrated optoelectronics and flat optics. However, direct optical inspection of integrated chips remains a missing metrology gap that hinders quick feedback between design and fabrications. Here, we demonstrate that photothermal nonlinear scattering microscopy can be used for direct imaging and resolving of integrated optoelectronic chips beyond the diffraction limit. We reveal that the inherent coupling among deep-subwavelength nanostructures supporting leaky resonances allows for the pronounced heating effect to access reversible nonlinear modulations of the confocal reflection intensity, yielding optical resolving power down to 80 nm (~λ/7). The versatility of this approach has been exemplified by imaging silicon grating couplers and metalens with minimum critical dimensions of 100 nm, as well as central processing unit chip with 45-nm technology, unfolding the long-sought possibility of in situ, nondestructive, high-throughput optical inspection of integrated optoelectronic and nanophotonic chips.

Photo-thermo-optical modulation of Raman scattering from Mie-resonant silicon nanostructures

Raman scattering is sensitive to local temperature and thus offers a convenient tool for non-contact and non-destructive optical thermometry at the nanoscale. In turn, all-dielectric nanostructures, such as silicon particles, exhibit strongly enhanced photothermal heating due to Mie resonances, which leads to the strong modulation of elastic Rayleigh scattering intensity through subsequent thermo-optical effects. However, the influence of the complex photo-thermo-optical effect on inelastic Raman scattering has yet to be explored for resonant dielectric nanostructures. In this work, we experimentally demonstrate that the strong photo-thermo-optical interaction results in the nonlinear dependence of the Raman scattering signal intensity from a crystalline silicon nanoparticle via the thermal reconfiguration of the resonant response. Our results reveal a crucial role of the Mie resonance spectral sensitivity to temperature, which modifies not only the conversion of the incident light into heat but also Raman scattering efficiency. The developed comprehensive model provides the mechanism for thermal modulation of Raman scattering, shedding light on the photon-phonon interaction physics of resonant material, which is essential for the validation of Raman nanothermometry in resonant silicon structures under a strong laser field.

Thermometries for Single Nanoparticles Heated with Light

The development of efficient nanoscale photon absorbers, such as plasmonic or high-index dielectric nanostructures, allows the remotely controlled release of heat on the nanoscale using light. These photothermal nanomaterials have found applications in various research and technological fields, ranging from materials science to biology. However, measuring the nanoscale thermal fields remains an open challenge, hindering full comprehension and control of nanoscale photothermal phenomena. Here, we review and discuss existent thermometries suitable for single nanoparticles heated under illumination. These methods are classified in four categories according to the region where they assess temperature: (1) the average temperature within a diffraction-limited volume, (2) the average temperature at the immediate vicinity of the nanoparticle surface, (3) the temperature of the nanoparticle itself, and (4) a map of the temperature around the nanoparticle with nanoscale spatial resolution. In the latter, because it is the most challenging and informative type of method, we also envisage new combinations of technologies that could be helpful in retrieving nanoscale temperature maps. Finally, we analyze and provide examples of strategies to validate the results obtained using different thermometry methods.

Ultrasensitive Photothermal Switching with Resonant Silicon Metasurfaces at Visible Bands

Dynamic access to quasi-bound states in the continuum (q-BICs) offers a highly desired platform for silicon-based active nanophotonic applications, while the prevailing tuning approaches by free carrier injections via an all-optical stimulus are yet limited to THz and infrared ranges and are less effective in visible bands. In this work, we present the realization of active manipulations on q-BICs for nanoscale optical switching in the visible by introducing a local index perturbation through a photothermal mechanism. The sharp q-BIC resonance exhibits an ultrasensitive susceptibility to the complex index perturbation, which can be flexibly fulfilled by optical heating of silicon. Consequently, a mild pump intensity of 1 MW/cm2 can yield a modification of the imaginary part of the refractive index of less than 0.05, which effectively suppresses the sharp q-BIC resonances and renders an active modulation depth of reflectance exceeding 80%. Our research might open up an enabling platform for ultrasensitive dynamic nanophotonic devices.

Advances in photothermal regulation strategies: from efficient solar heating to daytime passive cooling

Photothermal regulation concerning solar harvesting and repelling has recently attracted significant interest due to the fast-growing research focus in the areas of solar heating for evaporation, photocatalysis, motion, and electricity generation, as well as passive cooling for cooling textiles and smart buildings. The parallel development of photothermal regulation strategies through both material and system designs has further improved the overall solar utilization efficiency for heating/cooling. In this review, we will review the latest progress in photothermal regulation, including solar heating and passive cooling, and their manipulating strategies. The underlying mechanisms and criteria of highly efficient photothermal regulation in terms of optical absorption/reflection, thermal conversion, transfer, and emission properties corresponding to the extensive catalog of nanostructured materials are discussed. The rational material and structural designs with spectral selectivity for improving the photothermal regulation performance are then highlighted. We finally present the recent significant developments of applications of photothermal regulation in clean energy and environmental areas and give a brief perspective on the current challenges and future development of controlled solar energy utilization.

Photothermal Nanomaterials: A Powerful Light-to-Heat Converter

All forms of energy follow the law of conservation of energy, by which they can be neither created nor destroyed. Light-to-heat conversion as a traditional yet constantly evolving means of converting light into thermal energy has been of enduring appeal to researchers and the public. With the continuous development of advanced nanotechnologies, a variety of photothermal nanomaterials have been endowed with excellent light harvesting and photothermal conversion capabilities for exploring fascinating and prospective applications. Herein we review the latest progresses on photothermal nanomaterials, with a focus on their underlying mechanisms as powerful light-to-heat converters. We present an extensive catalogue of nanostructured photothermal materials, including metallic/semiconductor structures, carbon materials, organic polymers, and two-dimensional materials. The proper material selection and rational structural design for improving the photothermal performance are then discussed. We also provide a representative overview of the latest techniques for probing photothermally generated heat at the nanoscale. We finally review the recent significant developments of photothermal applications and give a brief outlook on the current challenges and future directions of photothermal nanomaterials.

3D and Inkjet Printing by Colored Mie-Resonant Silicon Nanoparticles Produced by Laser Ablation in Liquid

Optically resonant silicon nanoparticles have emerged as a prospective platform for the structural coloration of surfaces because of their strong and spectrally selective light scattering. In this work, we developed colorful inks based on polymer mixed with monodisperse Mie-resonant silicon nanoparticles for 3D and inkjet printing. We applied a laser ablation method in a flow cell for the mass production of silicon nanoparticles in water and separated the resulting nanoparticles with different sizes by density-gradient centrifugation. Mixing the colorful nanoparticles with the polymer allows for the printing of 3D objects with various shapes and colors, which are rigid against environmental conditions.

Launching directional hypersonic surface waves in monolithic gallium phosphide nanodisks: two holes are better than one

The emergence and rapid progress of all-dielectric nanoantennas have provided unprecedented platforms for applications in sensing, optical control of light, opto-mechanics and metrology at the nanoscale. We present a general figure-of-merit (FOM) considering both optical and vibrational responses. Detectable mechanical vibrations ranging from gigahertz to terahertz in gallium phosphide (GaP) structures on sub-wavelength scales are found to surpass their metallic counterparts in a 400-800 nm pump-probe configuration. Then, we tailored low-aspect ratio GaP disks being probed near their optical anapole resonance. We further broke the isotropy of the nanodisks and achieved pronounced directional propagation for launching surface acoustic waves (SAWs) with a double-hole structure rather than with a one-hole configuration, which could be attributed to the constructive superposition of vibration induced by the two holes in the appropriate direction. Finally, we demonstrated that the orbital angular momentum of SAWs could be generated with a spiral distribution of the two-hole nanodisks. Our work paves a new way to monolithic GaP nanoantennas towards photoacoustic applications such as hypersound routers, stirring up inverse designs of individual antennas for phononic metasurfaces, topological phononics as well as quantum phononics.

Multigram-Scale Production of Hybrid Au-Si Nanomaterial by Laser Ablation in Liquid (LAL) for Temperature-Feedback Optical Nanosensing, Light-to-Heat Conversion, and Anticounterfeit Labeling

Recent progress in hybrid optical nanomaterials composed of dissimilar constituents permitted an improvement in the performance and functionality of novel devices developed for optoelectronics, catalysis, medical diagnostics, and sensing. However, the rational combination of contrasting materials such as noble metals and semiconductors within individual hybrid nanostructures via a ready-to-use and lithography-free fabrication approach is still a challenge. Here, we report on a two-step synthesis of hybrid Au-Si microspheres generated by laser ablation of silicon in isopropanol followed by laser irradiation of the produced Si nanoparticles in the presence of HAuCl₄. Thermal reduction of [AuCl₄]^- species to a metallic gold phase, along with its subsequent mixing with silicon under laser irradiation, creates a nanostructured material with a unique composition and morphology, as revealed by electron microscopy, tomography, and elemental analysis. A combination of basic plasmonic and nanophotonic materials such as gold and silicon within a single microsphere allows for efficient light-to-heat conversion, as well as single-particle SERS sensing with temperature-feedback modality and expanded functionality. Moreover, the characteristic Raman signal and hot-electron-induced nonlinear photoluminescence coexisting within the novel Au-Si hybrids, as well as the commonly criticized randomness of the nanomaterials prepared by laser ablation in liquid, were proved to be useful for the realization of anticounterfeiting labels based on a physically unclonable function approach.

Security labeling and optical information encryption enabled by laser-printed silicon Mie resonators

Fighting against the falsification of valuable items remains a crucial social-threatening challenge stimulating a never-ending search for novel anti-counterfeiting strategies. The demanding security labels must simultaneously address multiple requirements (high density of the recorded information, high protection degree, etc.) and be realized via scalable and inexpensive technologies. Here, the direct reproducible femtosecond-laser patterning of thin glass-supported amorphous (α-)Si films is proposed for optical information encryption and the scalable and highly reproducible fabrication of security labels composed of Raman-active hemispherical Si nanoparticles (NPs). Laser printing conditions allow the precise control of the diameter of the formed NPs ensuring translation of their dipolar Mie resonance position within the entire visible spectral range. Two-temperature molecular dynamics simulations clarify the origin of α-Si NP formation by rupture of the molten Si layer driven by a negative GPa-range pressure near the liquid-solid interface. Arrangement of the laser-printed Mie-resonant NP allows the creation of hidden security labels offering several easy-to-realize information encryption strategies (for example, local laser-induced post-crystallization or mixing Mie-resonant and non-resonant NPs), additional protection modalities, facile Raman mapping readout and dense information recording (up to 60 000 dots per inch) close to the optical diffraction limit. The developed fabrication strategy is simple, inexpensive, and scalable and can be realized based on cheap Earth-abundant materials and commercially-available equipment justifying its practical applicability and attractiveness for anti-counterfeit and security applications.

Ag-Decorated Si Microspheres Produced by Laser Ablation in Liquid: All-in-One Temperature-Feedback SERS-Based Platform for Nanosensing

Combination of dissimilar materials such as noble metals and common semiconductors within unified nanomaterials holds promise for optoelectronics, catalysis and optical sensing. Meanwhile, difficulty of obtaining such hybrid nanomaterials using common lithography-based techniques stimulates an active search for advanced, inexpensive, and straightforward fabrication methods. Here, we report one-pot one-step synthesis of Ag-decorated Si microspheres via nanosecond laser ablation of monocrystalline silicon in isopropanol containing AgNO3. Laser ablation of bulk silicon creates the suspension of the Si microspheres that host further preferential growth of Ag nanoclusters on their surface upon thermal-induced decomposition of AgNO3 species by subsequently incident laser pulses. The amount of the AgNO3 in the working solution controls the density, morphology, and arrangement of the Ag nanoclusters allowing them to achieve strong and uniform decoration of the Si microsphere surface. Such unique morphology makes Ag-decorated Si microspheres promising for molecular identification based on the surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) effect. In particular, the designed single-particles sensing platform was shown to offer temperature-feedback modality as well as SERS signal enhancement up to 106, allowing reliable detection of the adsorbed molecules and tracing their plasmon-driven catalytic transformations. Considering the ability to control the decoration degree of Si microspheres by Ag nanoclusters via amount of the AgNO3, the developed one-pot easy-to-implement PLAL synthesis holds promise for gram-scale production of high-quality hybrid nanomaterial for various nanophotonics and sensing applications.

Organic Solar Cells Improved by Optically Resonant Silicon Nanoparticles

Silicon nanophotonics has become a versatile platform for optics and optoelectronics. For example, strong light localization at the nanoscale and lack of parasitic losses in infrared and visible spectral ranges make resonant silicon nanoparticles a prospect for improvement in such rapidly developing fields as photovoltaics. Here, we employed optically resonant silicon nanoparticles produced by laser ablation for boosting the power conversion efficiency of organic solar cells. Namely, we created colloidal solutions of spherical nanoparticles with a range of diameters (80-240 nm) in different solvents. We tested how the nanoparticles' position in the device, their concentration, silicon doping, and method of deposition affected the final device efficiency. The best conditions optimization resulted in an efficiency improvement from 6% up to 7.5%, which correlated with numerical simulations of nanoparticles' optical properties. The developed low-cost approach paves the way toward highly efficient and stable solution-processable solar cells.

Menezes L, Tittl A, Ren H, Maier SA. Optical Metasurfaces for Energy Conversion

Nanostructured surfaces with designed optical functionalities, such as metasurfaces, allow efficient harvesting of light at the nanoscale, enhancing light-matter interactions for a wide variety of material combinations. Exploiting light-driven matter excitations in these artificial materials opens up a new dimension in the conversion and management of energy at the nanoscale. In this review, we outline the impact, opportunities, applications, and challenges of optical metasurfaces in converting the energy of incoming photons into frequency-shifted photons, phonons, and energetic charge carriers. A myriad of opportunities await for the utilization of the converted energy. Here we cover the most pertinent aspects from a fundamental nanoscopic viewpoint all the way to applications.

Optical heating and luminescence thermometry combined in a Cr3+-doped YAl3(BO3)4

The possibility of optical heating with simultaneous control of the generated light within a single phosphor is particularly attractive from the perspective of multiple applications. This motivates the search for new solutions to enable efficient optical heating. In response to these requirements, based on the high absorption cross-section of Cr³⁺ ions, the optical heater based on YAl₃(BO₃)₄:Cr³⁺ exhibiting highly efficient heating is developed. At the same time, the emission intensity ratio of ²E_(g) → ⁴A_2(g) and ⁴T_2(g) → ⁴A_2(g) of Cr³⁺ bands, thanks to the monotonic temperature dependence, enables remote temperature readout of the phosphor using luminescence thermometry technique. The combination of these two functionalities within a single phosphor makes YAl₃(BO₃)₄:Cr³⁺ a promising, self thermally controlled photothermal agent.

Nonlinear optical heating of all-dielectric super-cavity: efficient light-to-heat conversion through giant thermorefractive bistability

Optical heating of resonant nanostructures is one of the key issues in modern nanophotonics, being either harmful or desirable effect depending on the applications. Despite a linear regime of light-to-heat conversion being well-studied both for metal and semiconductor resonant systems is generalized as a critical coupling condition, the clear strategy to optimize optical heating upon high-intensity light irradiation is still missing. This work proposes a simple analytical model for such a problem, taking into account material properties changes caused by the heating. It allows us to derive a new general critical coupling condition for the nonlinear case, requiring a counterintuitive initial spectral mismatch between the pumping light frequency and the resonant one. Based on the suggested strategy, we develop an optimized design for efficient nonlinear optical heating, which employs a cylindrical nanoparticle supporting the quasi bound state in the continuum mode (quasi-BIC or so-called 'super-cavity mode') excited by the incident azimuthal vector beam. Our approach provides a background for various nonlinear experiments related to optical heating and bistability, where self-action of the intense laser beam can change resonant properties of the irradiated nanostructure.

Designing two-dimensional temperature profiles using tunable thermoplasmonics

Heat flow generation and manipulation in nanometer-sized solids using light represents one of the up-and-coming tasks in thermonanophotonics. Enhanced light-matter interaction due to plasmon resonance permits metallic nanostructures to absorb light energy efficiently, and it results in extra optical heating. The net temperature increment of nanostructures is directly dependent on heat exchange with a thermostat. However, to the best of our knowledge, precise tailoring of optical heating at a fixed pump power is still of no practical implementation. In this paper, we focus on the tunable optical heating of a plasmonic nanostructure exposed to moderate light intensity (MW cm^-2) based on slowing down heat exchange through a 1D waveguide heatsink bridging the nanostructure and the highly thermal conducting thermostat. The rationale for this concept is evidenced through optical heating of a 2D array of stacked titanium nitride (TiN) (plasmonic refractory nanoheater) and height-controlled silicon (Si) (1D waveguide heatsink) cylinders. Depending on the Si pillar height, the temperature rise of a TiN : Si voxel ranges from a few up to thousands of degrees at a fixed pump power. The temperature of the TiN : Si voxel is remotely measured from the Raman shift of the Si pillar. Using ellipsometry, we find a temperature threshold of 400 °C, above which the thin TiN film is chemically degraded due to oxidation. The latter enables fine tailoring of thermal gradients using TiN : Si voxels of equal size but different permittivity. These findings contribute towards the development of tunable thermoplasmonics by demonstrating programmable non-uniform temperature profiles in the steady-state regime under continuous-wave laser illumination for a variety of thermo-optical applications.

Thermo-optical reshaping of second-harmonic emission from dimer all-dielectric nanoresonators

All-dielectric nanophotonics offers a wide range of possibilities for thermally induced light manipulation at the nanoscale. High quality resonances allow for efficient light-to-heat conversion supported by various temperature detection approaches based on thermally sensitive intrinsic optical responses. In this work, we study theoretically a phenomenon of the photothermal reshaping of the radiation pattern of second-harmonic generation (SHG) that occurs in resonant all-dielectric systems. In the suggested geometry, a near-IR pulsed laser is used for SHG while a continuous wave visible laser simultaneously heats the structure. The thermo-optical switching of the resonant optical states in the nanostructures governs the reconfiguration of the emission pattern, without significant loss in the magnitude of the SHG. We believe, that our findings will pave the way for subwavelength-size near-IR thermally switchable nonlinear optical devices.

Nonlinear heating and scattering in a single crystalline silicon nanostructure

Silicon nanophotonics has attracted significant attention because of its unique optical properties such as efficient light confinement and low non-radiative loss. For practical applications such as all-optical switch, optical nonlinearity is a prerequisite, but the nonlinearity of silicon is intrinsically weak. Recently, we discovered a giant nonlinearity of scattering from a single silicon nanostructure by combining Mie resonance enhanced photo-thermal and thermo-optic effects. Since scattering and absorption are closely linked in Mie theory, we expect that absorption, as well as heating, of the silicon nanostructure shall exhibit similar nonlinear behaviors. In this work, we experimentally measure the temperature rise of a silicon nanoblock by in situ Raman spectroscopy, explicitly demonstrating the connection between nonlinear scattering and nonlinear heating. The results agree well with finite-element simulation based on the photo-thermo-optic effect, manifesting that the nonlinear effect is the coupled consequence of the red shift between scattering and absorption spectra. Our work not only unravels the nonlinear absorption in a silicon Mie-resonator but also offers a quantitative analytic model to better understand the complete photo-thermo-optic properties of silicon nanostructures, providing a new perspective toward practical silicon photonics applications.

Opto-thermally controlled beam steering in nonlinear all-dielectric metastructures

Reconfigurable metasurfaces have recently gained a lot of attention in applications such as adaptive meta-lenses, hyperspectral imaging and optical modulation. This kind of metastructure can be obtained by an external control signal, enabling us to dynamically manipulate the electromagnetic radiation. Here, we theoretically propose an AlGaAs device to control the second harmonic generation (SHG) emission at nanoscale upon optimized optical heating. The asymmetric shape of the used meta-atom is selected to guarantee a predominant second harmonic (SH) emission towards the normal direction. The proposed structure is concurrently excited by a pump beam at a fundamental wavelength of 1540 nm and by a continuous wave (CW) control signal above the semiconductor band gap. The optical tuning is achieved by a selective optimization of meta-atoms SH phase, which is modulated by the control signal intensity. We numerically demonstrate that the heating induced in the meta-atoms by the CW pump can be used to dynamically tune the device properties. In particular, we theoretically demonstrate a SH beam steering of 8° with respect to the vertical axis for an optimized device with average temperature increase even below 90° C.

Colloidal Mie resonant silicon nanoparticles

Nano- and microstructures of silicon (Si) exhibit electric and magnetic Mie resonances in the optical regime, providing a novel platform for controlling light at the nanoscale and enhancing light-matter interactions. In this Review, we present recent development of colloidal Si nanoparticles (NPs) that have wide range of applications in nanophotonics. Following brief summary of synthesis methods of amorphous and crystalline Si particles with high sphericity, optical responses of single Si particles placed on a substrate are overviewed. Then, the capability as a nanoantenna to control light-matter interactions is discussed in different systems. Finally, collective optical responses of Si NPs in solution are presented and the application potentials are discussed.

Tungsten Based Spectrally Selective Absorbers with Anisotropic Rough Surface Texture

Spectrally selective absorbers have received considerable interest due to their applications in thermophotovoltaic devices and as solar absorbers. Due to extreme operating conditions in these applications, such as high temperatures, thermo-mechanically stable and broadband spectrally selective absorbers are of interest. This paper demonstrates anisotropic random rough surfaces that provide broadband spectrally selective absorption for the thermo-mechanically stable Tungsten surfaces. Anisotropic random rough surface has different correlation lengths in the x- and y-directions, which means their topography parameters have directional dependence. In particular, we demonstrate that spectral absorptance of Tungsten random rough surfaces at visible (VIS) and near-infrared (NIR) spectral regions are sensitive to correlation length and RMS height variations. Our results indicate that by optimizing random rough surface parameters, absorption values exceeding 95% can be obtained. Moreover, our results indicate that anisotropic random rough surfaces broaden the bandwidth of the high absorption region. It is shown that in VIS and NIR regions, the absorption enhancements of up to 47% and 52% are achieved for the isotropic and anisotropic rough surfaces, respectively.

All-Dielectric Nanostructures with a Thermoresponsible Dynamic Polymer Shell

We suggest a new strategy for creating stimuli-responsive bio-integrated optical nanostructures based on Mie-resonant silicon nanoparticles covered by an ensemble of similarity negatively charged polyelectrolytes (heparin and sodium polystyrene sulfonate). The dynamic tuning of the nanostructures' optical response is due to light-induced heating of the nanoparticles and swelling of the polyelectrolyte shell. The resulting hydrophilic/hydrophobic transitions significantly change the shell thickness and reversible shift of the scattering spectra for individual nanoparticles up to 60 nm. Our findings bring novel opportunities for the application of smart nanomaterials in nanomedicine and bio-integrated nanophotonics.

Photoabsorption Imaging at Nanometer Scales Using Secondary Electron Analysis

Optical imaging with nanometer resolution offers fundamental insights into light-matter interactions. Traditional optical techniques are diffraction limited with a spatial resolution >100 nm. Optical super-resolution and cathodoluminescence techniques have higher spatial resolutions, but these approaches require the sample to fluoresce, which many materials lack. Here, we introduce photoabsorption microscopy using electron analysis, which involves spectrally specific photoabsorption that is locally probed using a scanning electron microscope, whereby a photoabsorption-induced surface photovoltage modulates the secondary electron emission. We demonstrate spectrally specific photoabsorption imaging with sub-20 nm spatial resolution using silicon, germanium, and gold nanoparticles. Theoretical analysis and Monte Carlo simulations are used to explain the basic trends of the photoabsorption-induced secondary electron signal. Based on our current experiments and this analysis, we expect that the spatial resolution can be further improved to a few nanometers, thereby offering a general approach for nanometer-scale optical spectroscopic imaging and material characterization.

Quantitative Temperature Measurements in Gold Nanorods Using Digital Holography

Temperature characterization and quantification at the nanoscale remain core challenges in applications based on photoinduced heating of nanoparticles. Here, we propose a new approach to obtain quantitative temperature measurements on individual nanoparticles by combining modulated photothermal stimulation and heterodyne digital holography. From full-field reconstructed holograms, the temperature is determined with a precision of 0.3 K via a simple approach without requiring any calibration or fitting parameters. As an application, the dependence of temperature on the aspect ratio of gold nanoparticles is investigated. A good agreement with numerical simulation is observed.

Black Au-Decorated TiO2 Produced via Laser Ablation in Liquid

The rational combination of plasmonic and all-dielectric concepts within hybrid nanomaterials provides a promising route toward devices with ultimate performance and extended modalities. Spectral matching of plasmonic and Mie-type resonances for such nanostructures can only be achieved for their dissimilar characteristic sizes, thus making the resulting hybrid nanostructure geometry complex for practical realization and large-scale replication. Here, we produced amorphous TiO₂ nanospheres decorated and doped with Au nanoclusters via single-step nanosecond-laser irradiation of commercially available TiO₂ nanopowders dispersed in aqueous HAuCl₄. Fabricated hybrids demonstrate remarkable light-absorbing properties (averaged value ≈96%) in the visible and near-IR spectral range mediated by bandgap reduction of the laser-processed amorphous TiO₂ as well as plasmon resonances of the decorating Au nanoclusters. The findings are supported by optical spectroscopy, electron energy loss spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and electromagnetic modeling. Light-absorbing and plasmonic properties of the produced hybrids were implemented to demonstrate catalytically passive SERS biosensor for identification of analytes at trace concentrations and solar steam generator that permitted to increase water evaporation rate by 2.5 times compared with that of pure water under identical 1 sun irradiation conditions.

Cr3+ based nanocrystalline luminescent thermometers operating in a temporal domain

Cr3+ doped nanocrystals were examined as a noncontact temperature sensor in a lifetime-based approach. The impact of both the analysis protocols and host materials on the lifetime-based approach was systematically investigated. Temperature-dependent luminescence decay curves were analyzed according to three different procedures (average lifetime approach, double exponential fit and time-gated ratiometric approach). The advantages and drawbacks of each method are discussed. Additionally, the thermal sensitivities derived from the average lifetime approach and the double exponential fit revealed a strong dependence of the thermal sensitivity of the Cr3+ doped nanocrystals on the crystal field strength. In these cases, it was found that the long metal-oxygen distances in the host materials improve the thermal sensitivity of the system. This work reveals the importance of both host materials and analysis procedures in the lifetime thermal sensitivity of Cr3+ doped nanocrystals and opens up an avenue towards their future optimization.

Suppressing material loss in the visible and near-infrared range for functional nanophotonics using bandgap engineering

All-dielectric nanostructures have recently opened exciting opportunities for functional nanophotonics, owing to their strong optical resonances along with low material loss in the near-infrared range. Pushing these concepts to the visible range is hindered by their larger absorption coefficient, thus encouraging the search for alternative dielectrics for nanophotonics. Here, we employ bandgap engineering to synthesize hydrogenated amorphous Si nanoparticles (a-Si:H NPs) offering ideal features for functional nanophotonics. We observe significant material loss suppression in a-Si:H NPs in the visible range caused by hydrogenation-induced bandgap renormalization, producing strong higher-order resonant modes in single NPs with Q factors up to ~100 in the visible and near-IR range. We also realize highly tunable all-dielectric meta-atoms by coupling a-Si:H NPs to photochromic spiropyran molecules. ~70% reversible all-optical tuning of light scattering at the higher-order resonant mode under a low incident light intensity is demonstrated. Our results promote the development of high-efficiency visible nanophotonic devices.

Large absorption of high-index semiconductors has hindered the application of all dielectric nanostructures in the visible range. Here, the authors present bandgap-engineered hydrogenated amorphous Si nanoparticles with Q-factors up to 100 and their integration with photochromic molecules as tunable meta-atoms.

Optical Rotation and Thermometry of Laser Tweezed Silicon Nanorods

Optical rotation of laser tweezed nanoparticles offers a convenient means for optical to mechanical force transduction and sensing at the nanoscale. Plasmonic nanoparticles are the benchmark system for such studies, but their rapid rotation comes at the price of high photoinduced heating due to Ohmic losses. We show that Mie resonant silicon nanorods with characteristic dimensions of ∼220 × 120 nm² can be optically trapped and rotated at frequencies up to 2 kHz in water using circularly polarized laser light. The temperature excess due to heating from the trapping laser was estimated by phonon Raman scattering and particle rotation analysis. We find that the silicon nanorods exhibit slightly improved thermal characteristics compared to Au nanorods with similar rotation performance and optical resonance anisotropy. Altogether, the results indicate that silicon nanoparticles have the potential to become the system of choice for a wide range of optomechanical applications at the nanoscale.

Giant photothermal nonlinearity in a single silicon nanostructure

Silicon photonics have attracted significant interest because of their potential in integrated photonics components and all-dielectric meta-optics elements. One major challenge is to achieve active control via strong photon-photon interactions, i.e. optical nonlinearity, which is intrinsically weak in silicon. To boost the nonlinear response, practical applications rely on resonant structures such as microring resonators or photonic crystals. Nevertheless, their typical footprints are larger than 10 μm. Here, we show that 100 nm silicon nano-resonators exhibit a giant photothermal nonlinearity, yielding 90% reversible and repeatable modulation from linear scattering response at low excitation intensities. The equivalent nonlinear index is five-orders larger compared with bulk, based on Mie resonance enhanced absorption and high-efficiency heating in thermally isolated nanostructures. Furthermore, the nanoscale thermal relaxation time reaches nanosecond. This large and fast nonlinearity leads to potential applications for GHz all-optical control at the nanoscale and super-resolution imaging of silicon.

Stimulated Raman Scattering from Mie-Resonant Subwavelength Nanoparticles

Resonant dielectric structures have emerged recently as a new platform for subwavelength nonplasmonic photonics. It was suggested and demonstrated that magnetic and electric Mie resonances can enhance substantially many effects at the nanoscale including spontaneous Raman scattering. Here, we demonstrate stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) for isolated crystalline silicon (c-Si) nanoparticles and observe experimentally a transition from spontaneous to stimulated scattering manifested in a nonlinear growth of the signal intensity above a certain pump threshold. At the Mie resonance, the light gets confined into a low volume of the resonant mode with enhanced electromagnetic fields inside the c-Si nanoparticle due to its high refractive index, which leads to an overall strong SRS signal at low pump intensities. Our finding paves the way for the development of efficient Raman nanolasers for multifunctional photonic metadevices.

Anapole mediated giant photothermal nonlinearity in nanostructured silicon

Featured with a plethora of electric and magnetic Mie resonances, high index dielectric nanostructures offer a versatile platform to concentrate light-matter interactions at the nanoscale. By integrating unique features of far-field scattering control and near-field concentration from radiationless anapole states, here, we demonstrate a giant photothermal nonlinearity in single subwavelength-sized silicon nanodisks. The nanoscale energy concentration and consequent near-field enhancements mediated by the anapole mode yield a reversible nonlinear scattering with a large modulation depth and a broad dynamic range, unveiling a record-high nonlinear index change up to 0.5 at mild incident light intensities on the order of MW/cm². The observed photothermal nonlinearity showcases three orders of magnitude enhancement compared with that of unstructured bulk silicon, as well as nearly one order of magnitude higher than that through the radiative electric dipolar mode. Such nonlinear scattering can empower distinctive point spread functions in confocal reflectance imaging, offering the potential for far-field localization of nanostructured Si with an accuracy approaching 40 nm. Our findings shed new light on active silicon photonics based on optical anapoles.

The Rise of 2D Photothermal Materials beyond Graphene for Clean Water Production

Water shortage is one of the most concerning global challenges in the 21st century. Solar-inspired vaporization employing photothermal nanomaterials is considered to be a feasible and green technology for addressing the water challenge by virtue of abundant and clean solar energy. 2D nanomaterials aroused considerable attention in photothermal evaporation-induced water production owing to their large absorption surface, strong absorption in broadband solar spectrum, and efficient photothermal conversion. Herein, the recent progress of 2D nanomaterials-based photothermal evaporation, mainly including emerging Xenes (phosphorene, antimonene, tellurene, and borophene) and binary-enes (MXenes and transition metal dichalcogenides), is reviewed. Then, the optimization strategies for higher evaporation performance are summarized in terms of modulation of the intrinsic photothermal performance of 2D nanomaterials and design of the complete evaporation system. Finally, the challenges and prospective of various kinds of 2D photothermal nanomaterials are discussed in terms of the photothermal performance, stability, environmental influence, and cost. One important principle is that solutions for water challenges should not introduce new environmental and social problems. This Review aims to highlight the role of 2D photothermal nanomaterials in solving water challenges and provides a viable scheme toward the practical use in photothermal materials selection, design, and evaporation systems building.

Probing optical resonances of silicon nanostructures using tunable-excitation Raman spectroscopy

Optical materials with a high refractive index enable effective manipulation of light at the nanoscale through strong light confinement. However, the optical near field, which is mainly confined inside such high-index nanostructures, is difficult to probe with existing measurement techniques. Here, we exploit the connection between Raman scattering and the stored electric energy to detect resonance-induced near-field enhancements in silicon nanostructures. We introduce a Raman setup with a wavelength-tunable laser, which allows us to tune the Raman excitation wavelength and thereby identify Fabry-Pérot and Mie type resonances in silicon thin films and nanodisk arrays, respectively. We measure the optical near-field enhancement by comparing the Raman response on and off resonance. Our results show that tunable-excitation Raman spectroscopy can be used as a complimentary far-field technique to reflection measurements for nanoscale characterization and quality control. As proof-of-principle for the latter, we demonstrate that Raman spectroscopy captures fabrication imperfections in the silicon nanodisk arrays, enabling an all-optical quality control of metasurfaces.

Optical nanoheating of resonant silicon nanoparticles

The photothermal characteristics of nanoparticles are of particular interest to biophotonic and biomedical applications due to their ability to efficiently localize thermal energy down to the nanometer scale. However, few works had demonstrated an efficient dissipation of heat to their nanoscale surrounding in response to optical excitation. Here, we demonstrate an efficient platform for optical nanoheating based on silicon nanocuboids. Based on Green's tensor formalism and temperature-dependent Raman spectroscopy analyses, we found that the significant nanoheating effect is a consequence of the resonant modes specifically, to the high degree of overlap between the different resonant modes of the silicon nanocuboids. Currently, the temperature rise of up to 300 K was measured with incident power density of 2.9 mW/µm². Such effective nanoheating platform would be suitable in applications where controllable optical nanoheating is crucial, such as nanosurgery, photochemistry, and nanofabrication.

One-step rapid synthesis of fluorescent silicon nanodots for a hydrogen peroxide-related sensitive and versatile assay based on the inner filter effect

In this work, a kind of environment-friendly and water-dispersible silicon nanodot (SiND) was rapidly synthesized by using the mild reagents (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane (APTES) and glucose. It was found that the fluorescence of the as-prepared SiNDs can be quenched obviously by permanganate due to the inner filter effect. Inspired by this finding, a novel fluorescent sensor for sensitive detection of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) was developed through the oxidation-reduction reaction between permanganate and H₂O₂. The detection limit of H₂O₂ is down to 2.8 nM. Since H₂O₂ is an important molecule and involved in various studies, this sensor could be applied in various H₂O₂-related biological analyses. As a proof-of-application demonstration, a sensitive biosensor for glucose detection was constructed through the catalytic oxidation of glucose to generate H₂O₂. The as-constructed sensor showed good linear response to glucose over the range from 0.16 to 16 μM with a detection limit of 0.11 μM. Moreover, the biosensor can be readily extended to other sensors for different targets, which indicates the broad applications of the proposed sensing strategy in biomedical analysis.

Si1-xGex nanoantennas with a tailored Raman response and light-to-heat conversion for advanced sensing applications

Active light-emitting all-dielectric nanoantennas recently have demonstrated great potential as highly efficient nanoscale light sources owing to their strong luminescent and Raman responses. However, their large-scale fabrication faces a number of problems related to productivity limits of existing lithography techniques. Thus, high-throughput fabrication strategies allowing in a facile way to tailor of the nanoantenna emission and thermal properties in the process of their fabrication are highly desirable for various applications. Here, we propose a cost-effective approach to large-scale fabrication of Si1-xGex alloyed Mie nanoresonators possessing an enhanced inherent Raman response which can be simply tailored via tuning the Ge concentration. Moreover, by tailoring the relative Ge composition one can gradually change a complex refractive index of the produced Si1-xGex alloy, which affects the ratio between radiative and nonradiative losses in Si1-xGex nanoantennas, which is crucial for optimization of their optical heating efficiency. Composition-tunable Si1-xGex nanoantennas with an optimized size, light-to-heat conversion and Raman response are implemented for non-invasive sensing of 4-aminothiophenol molecules with a temperature feedback modality and high subwavelength spatial resolution. The results are important for advanced multichannel optical sensing, providing information on analyte's composition, analyte-nanoantenna temperature response and spatial position.

Large-Scale and Low-Cost Fabrication of Silicon Mie Resonators

High index dielectric nanoparticles have been proposed for many different applications. However, widespread utilization in practice also requires large-scale production methods for crystalline silicon nanoparticles, with engineered optical properties in a low-cost manner. Here, we demonstrate a facile, low-cost, and large-scale fabrication method of crystalline silicon colloidal Mie resonators in water, using a blender. The obtained nanoparticles are polydisperse with an almost spherical shape and the diameters controlled in the range 100-200 nm by a centrifugation process. Then the size distribution of silicon nanoparticles enables broad extinction from UV to near-infrared, confirmed by Mie theory when considering the size distribution in the calculations. Thanks to photolithographic and drop-cast deposition techniques to locate the position on a substrate of the colloidal nanoparticles, we experimentally demonstrate that the individual silicon nanoresonators show strong electric and magnetic Mie resonances in the visible range.

Using optical resonances to control heat generation and propagation in silicon nanostructures

Integrated electronics, photonics and optoelectronics need full control of lattice reconstruction processes in silicon nanostructures at the nanoscale level.

The optical duality of tellurium nanoparticles for broadband solar energy harvesting and efficient photothermal conversion

Nanophotonic materials for solar energy harvesting and photothermal conversion are urgently needed to alleviate the global energy crisis. We demonstrate that a broadband absorber made of tellurium (Te) nanoparticles with a wide size distribution can absorb more than 85% solar radiation in the entire spectrum. Temperature of the absorber irradiated by sunlight can increase from 29° to 85°C within 100 s. By dispersing Te nanoparticles into water, the water evaporation rate is improved by three times under solar radiation of 78.9 mW/cm². This photothermal conversion surpasses that of plasmonic or all-dielectric nanoparticles reported before. We also establish that the unique permittivity of Te is responsible for the high performance. The real part of permittivity experiences a transition from negative to positive in the ultraviolet-visible-near-infrared region, which endows Te nanoparticles with the plasmonic-like and all-dielectric duality. The total absorption covers the entire spectrum of solar radiation due to the enhancement by both plasmonic-like and Mie-type resonances. It is the first reported material that simultaneously has plasmonic-like and all-dielectric properties in the solar radiation region. These findings suggest that the Te nanoparticle can be expected to be an advanced photothermal conversion material for solar-enabled water evaporation.

The conformation of bovine serum albumin adsorbed to the surface of single all-dielectric nanoparticles following light-induced heating

Interaction between nanoparticles and biomolecules leads to the formation of biocompatible or bioadverse complexes. Despite the rapid development of nanotechnologies for biology and medicine, relatively little is known about the structure of such complexes. Here, we report on the changes in conformation of a blood protein (bovine serum albumin) adsorbed on the surface of single all-dielectric nanoparticles (silicon and germanium) following light-induced heating to 640 K. This protein is considerably more resistant to heat when adsorbed on the nanoparticle than when in solution or in the solid state. Intriguingly, with germanium nanoparticles this heat resistance is more pronounced than with silicon. These observations will facilitate biocompatible usage of all-dielectric nanoparticles.

Resonant silicon nanoparticles with controllable crystalline states and nonlinear optical responses

High-throughput laser printing of resonant silicon nanoparticles has emerged as a novel tool for the fabrication of deeply subwavelength objects with various functionalities. The applications of resonant silicon nanoparticles crucially depend on their crystalline state. However, the ways to control the crystalline structure during laser printing remain unstudied. Here we demonstrate, both experimentally and theoretically, how the crystalline structure of silicon nanoparticles fabricated by a laser printing technique can be varied from almost amorphous to a polycrystalline state. In particular, we propose a method of crystalline structure control via changing the distance between the irradiated silicon film and the receiving substrate. This study allows the most optimal conditions for second harmonic generation to be revealed. We believe that the proposed method opens the door to fully controllable laser printing of functional nanoparticles and nanostructures.

Non-Plasmonic SERS with Silicon: Is It Really Safe? New Insights into the Optothermal Properties of Core/Shell Microbeads

Silicon is one of the most interesting candidates for plasmon-free surface-enhaced Raman scattering (SERS), because of its high-refractive index and thermal stability. However, here we demonstrate that the alleged thermal stability of silicon nanoshells irradiated by conventional Raman laser cannot be taken for granted. We investigated the opto-thermal behavior of SiO₂/Si core/shell microbeads (Si-rex) irradiated with three common Raman laser sources (λ = 532, 633, 785 nm) under real working conditions. We obtained an experimental proof of the critical role played by bead size and aggregation in heat and light management, demonstrating that, in the case of strong opto-thermal coupling, the temperature can exceed that of the melting points of both core and shell components. In addition, we also show that weakly coupled beads can be utilized as stable substrates for plasmon-free SERS experiments.

Mapping the refractive index with single plasmonic nanoantenna

As the size of the state-of-the-art optical devices shrinks to nanoscale, the need for tools allowing mapping the local optical properties at deep sub-diffraction resolution increases. Here we demonstrate successful mapping the variations of the refractive index of a smooth dielectric surface by detecting spectral response of a single spherical-shape Ag nanoparticle optically aligned with a supporting optical fiber axicon microlens. We propose and examine various excitation schemes of the plasmonic nanoantenna to provide efficient interaction of its dipolar and quadrupolar modes with the underlying sample surface and to optimize the mapping resolution and sensitivity. Moreover, we demonstrate an lithography-free approach for fabrication of the scanning probe combining the high-quality fiber microaxicon with the Ag spherical nanoparticle atop. Supporting finite-difference time-domain calculations are undertaken to tailor the interaction of the plasmonic nanoantenna and the underlying dielectric substrate upon various excitation conditions demonstrating good agreement with our experimental findings and explaining the obtained results.

Photo-induced heat generation in non-plasmonic nanoantennas

The photo-induced heat generation in SiO₂/Si core/shell nanoantennas is analysed on the basis of their optothermal properties.