Dealkenylative Thiylation of C(sp3)-C(sp2) Bonds

Synthesis through C(sp3)-C(sp2) Bond Scission in Alkenes and Ketones

ConspectusThe homolytic cleavage of C-C bonds adjacent to functional groups has recently become a popular strategy for restructuring the skeletons of complex organic molecules. In contrast to the traditional reactivity profiles of polar bond disconnections, homolytic scission furnishes carbon-centered free radicals primed for controlled termination with a diverse range of radicophiles. Beyond standard radical capture, transition-metal catalysis facilitates sophisticated C-C and C-heteroatom bond-forming reactions. Intensive efforts have been focused over many years into the cleavage of the neighboring C-C bonds of carboxylic acids and alcohols. Despite the ubiquity of alkenes and ketones in natural products, feedstock chemicals, and common synthetic intermediates, much less attention has been paid to exploiting their potential in diversifying chiral pool materials, such as terpenes and terpenoids. Defunctionalization in this manner is a powerful approach for synthesizing high-value chemicals and advanced synthetic intermediates because of the possibility to reconstruct and further decorate chirality-bearing carbon skeletons. Motivated by synthetic necessity, since 2018 our group has focused on developing ozonolysis-based dealkenylative molecular diversification, and we expanded into deacylation in 2025. In this Account, we chronicle our initial motivation, describe the historical background, and summarize our research into dealkenylative and deacylative synthesis. Our dealkenylative approach capitalizes on the ozonolysis of alkenes in MeOH to generate α-methoxyhydroperoxides primed for a reaction with reducing agents. Their reduction through single electron transfer, mediated by a transition metal, leads to the formation of an alkoxyl radical that undergoes rapid β-scission, furnishing both a carbon-centered free radical and an ester group derived from the acetal carbon atom. The produced free radical can be strategically terminated by radicophiles, thereby delivering remodeled chiral molecules. Using this concept, we have developed hydrodealkenylation (through hydrogen atom transfer from benzenethiol), dealkenylative thiylation (through thiyl group transfer from diaryl disulfides), alkenylation (through addition/elimination with nitrostyrenes), and oxodealkenylation (through treatment with TEMPO followed by oxidation). Furthermore, kinetic analysis has enabled the development of a catalytic FeII/vitamin C system for dealkenylative alkynylation and halodealkenylation. Synergizing ozonolysis and copper catalysis has recently enabled aminodealkenylation through net-redox-neutral C-C cleavage followed by C-N bond formation. Although the high oxidation potential of ozone relative to organic compounds makes alkene-to-peroxide conversion possible, it also limits the applicability of dealkenylative techniques for substrates featuring ozone-sensitive functional groups. We recently overcame this constraint by first applying Isayama-Mukayiama peroxidation to olefins and then using a novel catalytic system─catalytic FeIII and PhSH with stoichiometric γ-terpinene─for ozone-free hydrodealkenylation. Beyond alkenes, we have developed a straightforward methodology for the homolytic deacylative cleavage of ketones as well, including cycloalkanones. This process is applicable in total syntheses and in the late-stage modifications of complex ketone-containing natural products.

Hydrodealkenylative C(sp3)-C(sp2) Bond Fragmentation Using Isayama-Mukaiyama Peroxidation

Advancements in radical capture strategies have expanded the range of products accessible from alkenes through dealkenylative synthesis. These methods, however, are still limited, as they rely on ozonolysis to generate the key peroxide intermediates from alkenes. Ozonolysis has several limitations. It is not compatible with alkenes containing electron-rich aromatics. It is also inapplicable to certain alkene substitution patterns in the context of dealkenylative synthesis. Additionally, it struggles with sterically hindered alkenes, internal nucleophiles and electrophiles, and allylic alcohols. In this paper, using Isayama-Mukaiyama peroxidation (IMP), we address the limitations of ozonolysis to rescue previously inaccessible alkene substrates and broaden the applicability of dealkenylative functionalization. In particular, we apply IMP in hydrodealkenylation and describe a novel radical hydrogenation condition─employing catalytic [FeIII], catalytic benzenethiol, and γ-terpinene in refluxing methanol─to resolve β-scission issues associated with IMP-generated alkyl silylperoxides.

Light-activated hypervalent iodine agents enable diverse aliphatic C-H functionalization

The functionalization of aliphatic C-H bonds is a crucial step in the synthesis and transformation of complex molecules relevant to medicinal, agricultural and materials chemistry. As such, there is substantial interest in the development of general synthetic platforms that enable the efficient diversification of aliphatic C-H bonds. Here we report a hypervalent iodine reagent that releases a potent hydrogen atom abstractor for C-H activation under mild photochemical conditions. Using this reagent, we demonstrate selective (N-phenyltetrazole)thiolation of aliphatic C-H bonds for a broad scope of substrates. The synthetic utility of the thiolated products is showcased through various derivatizations. Simply by altering the radical trapping agent, our method can directly transform C-H bonds into diverse functionalities, including C-S, C-Cl, C-Br, C-I, C-O, C-N, C-C and C=C bonds.

Halodealkenylation: Ozonolysis and Catalytic FeII with Vitamin C Convert C(sp3)-C(sp2) Bonds to C(sp3)-Halide Bonds

As part of our investigations into C-C bond scission and functionalization, we report a halodealkenylation in which the C(sp3)-C(sp2) bonds of alkenes are cleaved and C(sp3)-halide bonds are formed, via a radical intermediate. These transformations occur through Criegee ozonolysis and FeII-catalyzed reductive coupling assisted by vitamin C as a stoichiometric reductant. We applied this strategy to the formal synthesis of (R,R,R)-γ-tocopherol.

Visible Light-Mediated Late-Stage Thioetherification of Mercaptopurine Derivatives

We disclose herein a novel and general radical approach to alkylthiopurines, encompassing 4 types of thiopurines, as well as their corresponding ribosides. This strategy is achieved through visible light-mediated late-stage functionalization of the sulfur atoms of mercaptopurines. The in situ-generated disulfide was proposed as the pivotal neutral intermediate for this transformation. We present herein a novel photo-mediated homolytic C-S bond formation for the preparation of alkylthiopurines and alkylthiopurine nucleosides. Despite the presence of reactive sites for the Minisci reaction, chemoselective S-alkylation remained the predominant pathway. This method allows for the late-stage introduction of a broad spectrum of alkyl groups onto the sulfur atom of unprotective mercaptopurine derivatives, encompassing 2-, 6-, and 8-mercaptopurine rings. Organoborons serve as efficient and eco-friendly alkylating reagents, providing advantages in terms of readily availability, stability, and reduced toxicity. Further derivatization of the thioetherified nucleosides, together with anti-tumor assays, led to the discovery of potent anti-tumor agents with an IC50 value reaching 6.1 μM (Comp. 31 for Jurkat).

C(sp3)-H (N-Phenyltetrazole)thiolation as an Enabling Tool for Molecular Diversification

Methods enabling the broad diversification of C(sp3)-H bonds from a common intermediate are especially valuable in chemical synthesis. Herein, we report a site-selective (N-phenyltetrazole)thiolation of aliphatic and (hetero)benzylic C(sp3)-H bonds using a commercially available disulfide to access N-phenyltetrazole thioethers. The thioether products are readily elaborated in diverse fragment couplings for C-C, C-O, or C-N construction. The C-H functionalization proceeds via a radical-chain pathway involving hydrogen atom transfer by the electron-poor N-phenyltetrazolethiyl radical. Hexafluoroisopropanol was found to be essential to reactions involving aliphatic C(sp3)-H thiolation, with computational analysis consistent with dual hydrogen bonding of the N-phenyltetrazolethiyl radical imparting increased radical electrophilicity to facilitate the hydrogen atom transfer. Substrate is limiting reagent in all cases, and the reaction displays an exceptional functional group tolerance well suited to applications in late-stage diversification.

Construction of C-S and C-Se Bonds from Unstrained Ketone Precursors under Photoredox Catalysis

A mild photoredox catalyzed construction of sulfides, disulfides, selenides, sulfoxides and sulfones from unstrained ketone precursors is introduced. Combination of this deacylative process with SN 2 or coupling reactions provides novel and convenient modular strategies toward unsymmetrical or symmetric disulfides. Reactivity studies favor a bromine radical that initiates a HAT (Hydrogen Atom Transfer) from the aminal intermediate resulting in expulsion of a C-centered radical that is intercepted to make C-S and C-Se bonds. Gram scale reactions, broad substrate scope and tolerance towards various functional groups render this method appealing for future applications in the synthesis of organosulfur and selenium complexes.

Dealkenylative Functionalizations: Conversion of Alkene C(sp3)-C(sp2) Bonds into C(sp3)-X Bonds via Redox-Based Radical Processes

This review highlights the history and recent advances in dealkenylative functionalization. Through this deconstructive strategy, radical functionalizations occur under mild, robust conditions. The reactions described proceed with high efficiency, good stereoselectivity, tolerate many functional groups, and are completed within a matter of minutes. By cleaving the C(sp3)-C(sp2) bond of terpenes and terpenoid-derived precursors, rapid diversification of natural products is possible.

Aminodealkenylation: Ozonolysis and copper catalysis convert C(sp3)-C(sp2) bonds to C(sp3)-N bonds

Great efforts have been directed toward alkene π bond amination. In contrast, analogous functionalization of the adjacent C(sp3)-C(sp2) σ bonds is much rarer. Here we report how ozonolysis and copper catalysis under mild reaction conditions enable alkene C(sp3)-C(sp2) σ bond-rupturing cross-coupling reactions for the construction of new C(sp3)-N bonds. We have used this unconventional transformation for late-stage modification of hormones, pharmaceutical reagents, peptides, and nucleosides. Furthermore, we have coupled abundantly available terpenes and terpenoids with nitrogen nucleophiles to access artificial terpenoid alkaloids and complex chiral amines. In addition, we applied a commodity chemical, α-methylstyrene, as a methylation reagent to prepare methylated nucleosides directly from canonical nucleosides in one synthetic step. Our mechanistic investigation implicates an unusual copper ion pair cooperative process.

Radical approaches to C-S bonds

Organosulfur functionalities are ubiquitous in nature, pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, materials and flavourants. Historically, these moieties were introduced almost exclusively using ionic chemistry; however, radical-based methods for the installation of sulfur-based functional groups have recently come to the fore. These radical methods have enabled their late-stage introduction into complex molecules, avoiding the need to preserve labile organosulfur moieties through multistep synthetic sequences. Here, we discuss homolytic C-S bond-forming processes, with a particular emphasis on radical substitution approaches to sulfide, disulfide and sulfinyl products, and the use of sulfur dioxide and its surrogates to build sulfonyl products. We also highlight the mechanistic considerations that we hope will guide further development of radical-based strategies compatible with the various organosulfur moieties that feature in modern chemistry.

Deacylative Thiolation by Redox-Neutral Aromatization-Driven C-C Fragmentation of Ketones

Herein we report the development of deacylative thiolation of diverse methyl ketones. The reaction is redox-neutral, and heavy-metal-free, which provides a new way to introduce thioether groups site-specifically to unactivated aliphatic positions. It also features excellent functional group tolerance and broad substrate scope, thus allowing late-stage derivatization. The process benefits from efficient condensation between the activation reagent and ketone substrates, which triggers aromatization-driven C-C fragmentation and rapid radical coupling with thiosulfonates. Experimental and computational mechanistic studies suggest the involvement of a radical chain pathway.

When all C-C breaks LO-Ose

Organic peroxides are becoming popular intermediates for novel chemical transformations. The weak O-O bond is readily reduced by transition metals, including iron and copper, to initiate a radical cascade process that breaks C-C bonds. Great potential exists for the rapid generation of complexity, originating from the ability to couple the resulting free radicals with a wide range of partners. First, this review article discusses the history and synthesis of organic peroxides, providing the context necessary to understand this methodology. Then, it highlights 91 examples of recent applications of the radical functionalization of C-C bonds accessed through the transition metal-mediated reduction of organic peroxides. Finally, we provide some comments about safety when working with organic peroxides.

Total Synthesis of Vilmoraconitine

Vilmoraconitine belongs to one of the most complex skeleton types in the C19-diterpenoid alkaloids, which architecturally features an unprecedented heptacyclic core possessing a rigid cyclopropane unit. Here, we report the first total synthesis of vilmoraconitine relying on strategic use of efficient ring-forming reactions. Key steps include an oxidative dearomatization-induced Diels-Alder cycloaddition, a hydrodealkenylative fragmentation/Mannich sequence, and an intramolecular Diels-Alder cycloaddition.

Dealkenylative Alkynylation Using Catalytic FeII and Vitamin C

In this paper, we report the synthesis of alkyl-tethered alkynes through ozone-mediated and FeII-catalyzed dealkenylative alkynylation of unactivated alkenes in the presence of alkynyl sulfones. This one-pot reaction, which employs a combination of a catalytic FeII salt and l-ascorbic acid, proceeds under mild conditions with good efficiency, high stereoselectivity, and broad functional group compatibility. In contrast to our previous FeII-mediated reductive fragmentation of α-methoxyhydroperoxides, the FeII-catalyzed process was devised through a thorough kinetic analysis of the multiple competing radical (redox) pathways. We highlight the potential of this dealkenylative alkynylation through multiple post-synthetic transformations and late-stage diversifications of complex molecules, including natural products and pharmaceuticals.

Site-selective amination and/or nitrilation via metal-free C(sp2)-C(sp3) cleavage of benzylic and allylic alcohols

Benzylic/allylic alcohols are converted via site-selective C(sp²)-C(sp³) cleavage to value-added nitrogenous motifs, viz., anilines and/or nitriles as well as N-heterocycles, utilizing commercial hydroxylamine-O-sulfonic acid (HOSA) and Et₃N in an operationally simple, one-pot process. Notably, cyclic benzylic/allylic alcohols undergo bis-functionalization with attendant increases in architectural complexity and step-economy.

C-H Insertion via Ruthenium Catalyzed gem-Hydrogenation of 1,3-Enynes

gem-Hydrogenation of an internal alkyne with the aid of [Cp*RuCl]₄ as the precatalyst is a highly unorthodox transformation, in which one C atom of the triple bond is transformed into a methylene group, whereas the second C atom gets converted into a ruthenium carbene. In the case of 1,3-enynes bearing a propargylic steering substituent as the substrates, the reaction occurs regioselectively, giving rise to vinyl carbene complexes that adopt interconverting η¹/η³-binding modes in solution; a prototypical example of such a reactive intermediate was characterized in detail by spectroscopic means. Although both forms are similarly stable, only the η³-vinyl carbene proved kinetically competent to insert into primary, secondary, or tertiary C–H bonds on the steering group itself or another suitably placed ether, acetal, orthoester, or (sulfon)amide substituent. The ensuing net hydrogenative C–H insertion reaction is highly enabling in that it gives ready access to spirocyclic as well as bridged ring systems of immediate relevance as building blocks for medicinal chemistry. Moreover, the reaction scales well and lends itself to the formation of partly or fully deuterated isotopologues. Labeling experiments in combination with PHIP NMR spectroscopy (PHIP = parahydrogen induced polarization) confirmed that the reactions are indeed triggered by gem-hydrogenation, whereas kinetic data provided valuable insights into the very nature of the turnover-limiting transition state of the actual C–H insertion step.

Co-catalyzed C(sp3)−C(sp2) bond cleavage via hydrogen atom transfer

The discovery of a new Co-catalyzed hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) C(sp3)-C(sp2) bond cleavage method to access ketones from alkenes is reported. This unprecedented transformation features mild reaction conditions and good...

Dealkenylative Ni-Catalyzed Cross-Coupling Enabled by Tetrazine and Photoexcitation

A new and general method to functionalize the C(sp³)-C(sp²) bond of alkyl and alkene linkages has been developed, leading to the dealkenylative generation of carbon-centered radicals that can be intercepted to undergo Ni-catalyzed C(sp³)-C(sp²) cross-coupling. This one-pot protocol leverages the easily procured alkene feedstocks for organic synthesis with excellent functional group compatibility without the need for a photoredox catalyst.

Iron-Catalyzed Thiolation and Selenylation of Cycloalkyl Hydroperoxides via C-C Bond Cleavage

A cheap iron-catalyzed C-C bond cleavage/thiolation and selenylation of cycloalkyl hydroperoxides are presented. This redox-neutral protocol provides efficient access to diverse distal keto-functionalized thioethers and selenium compounds. Remarkably, only some amounts of disulfides are required for this transformation.

Selective Dealkenylative Functionalization of Styrenes via C-C Bond Cleavage

As a readily available feedstock, styrene with about 25 million tons of global annual production serves as an important building block and organic synthon for the synthesis of fine chemicals, polystyrene plastics, and elastomers. Thus, in the past decades, many direct transformations of this costless styrene feedstock were disclosed for the preparation of high-value chemicals, which to date, generally performed on the functionalization of styrenes through the allylic C-H bond, C(sp²)-H bond, or the C=C double bond cleavage. However, the dealkenylative functionalization of styrenes via the direct C-C single bond cleavage is so far challenging and still unknown. Herein, we report the novel and efficient C-C amination and hydroxylation reactions of styrenes for the synthesis of valuable aryl amines and phenols via the site-selective C(Ar)-C(alkenyl) single bond cleavage. This chemistry unlocks the new transformation and application of the styrene feedstock and provides an efficient protocol for the late-stage modification of substituted styrenes with the site-directed dealkenylative amination and hydroxylation.

Recent Advances in the Synthesis of Sulfides, Sulfoxides and Sulfones via C-S Bond Construction from Non-Halide Substrates

The construction of a C-S bond is a powerful strategy for the synthesis of sulfur containing compounds including sulfides, sulfoxides, and sulfones. Recent methodological developments have revealed lots of novel protocols for C-S bond formation, providing easy access to sulfur containing compounds. Unlike traditional Ullmann typed C-S coupling reaction, the recently developed reactions frequently use non-halide compounds, such as diazo compounds and simple arenes/alkanes instead of aryl halides as substrates. On the other hand, novel C-S coupling reaction pathways involving thiyl radicals have emerged as an important strategy to construct C-S bonds. In this review, we focus on the recent advances on the synthesis of sulfides, sulfoxides, and sulfones from non-halide substrates involving C-S bond construction.

Dealkenylative Alkenylation: Formal σ-Bond Metathesis of Olefins

The dealkenylative alkenylation of alkene C(sp3 )-C(sp2 ) bonds has been an unexplored area for C-C bond formation. Herein 64 examples of β-alkylated styrene derivatives, synthesized through the reactions of readily accessible feedstock olefins with β-nitrostyrenes by ozone/FeII -mediated radical substitutions, are reported. These reactions proceed with good efficiencies and high stereoselectivities under mild reaction conditions and tolerate an array of functional groups. Also demonstrated is the applicability of the strategy through several synthetic transformations of the products, as well as the syntheses of the natural product iso-moracin and the drug (E)-metanicotine.

Oxodealkenylative Cleavage of Alkene C(sp3 )-C(sp2 ) Bonds: A Practical Method for Introducing Carbonyls into Chiral Pool Materials

Reported herein is a one-pot protocol for the oxodealkenylative introduction of carbonyl functionalities into terpenes and terpene-derived compounds. This transformation proceeds by Criegee ozonolysis of an alkene, reductive cleavage of the resulting α-alkoxy hydroperoxide, trapping of the generated alkyl radical with 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl (TEMPO), and subsequent oxidative fragmentation with MMPP. Using readily available starting materials from chiral pool, a variety of carbonyl-containing products have been accessed rapidly in good yields.

Dealkenylative Thiylation of C(sp3)-C(sp2) Bonds

Carbon-carbon bond fragmentations are useful methods for the functionalization of molecules. The value of such cleavage events is maximized when paired with subsequent bond formation. Herein we report a protocol for the cleavage of an alkene C(sp³)-C(sp²) bond, followed by the formation of a new C(sp³)-S bond. This reaction is performed in nonanhydrous solvent and open to the air, employs common starting materials, and can be used to rapidly diversify natural products.