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Wang Y, Zhao C, Cai Z, Wang L, Zhu L, Huang H, Zhang G, You P, Xie C, Wang Y, Bai Q, Yang T, Li S, Zhang G. All-Polymer Solar Cells Sequentially Solution Processed from Hydrocarbon Solvent with a Thick Active Layer. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:3462. [PMID: 37631520 PMCID: PMC10459458 DOI: 10.3390/polym15163462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Organic solar cells (OSCs) have gained increasing attention. Among the various directions in OSCs, all-polymer solar cells (all-PSCs) have emerged as a highly promising and currently active research area due to their excellent film formation properties, mechanical properties, and thermal stabilities. However, most of the high-efficiency all-PSCs are processed from chloroform with an active layer thickness of ~100 nm. In order to meet the requirements for industrialization, a thicker active layer processed from low-vapor pressure solvents (preferentially a hydrocarbon solvent) is strongly desired. Herein, we employ toluene (a hydrocarbon solvent with a much higher boiling point than chloroform) and a method known as sequential processing (SqP) to mitigate the rapid decline in efficiency with increasing film thickness. We show that SqP enables a more favorable vertical phase segregation that leads to less trap-assisted recombination and enhanced charge extraction and lifetime than blend-cast devices at higher film thicknesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yajie Wang
- College of New Materials and New Energies, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China (G.Z.)
| | - Chaoyue Zhao
- College of New Materials and New Energies, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China (G.Z.)
| | - Ziqi Cai
- Julong College, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China; (Z.C.)
| | - Lihong Wang
- College of New Materials and New Energies, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China (G.Z.)
| | - Liangxiang Zhu
- College of New Materials and New Energies, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China (G.Z.)
| | - Hui Huang
- College of New Materials and New Energies, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China (G.Z.)
| | - Guoping Zhang
- College of New Materials and New Energies, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China (G.Z.)
| | - Peng You
- College of New Materials and New Energies, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China (G.Z.)
| | - Chen Xie
- College of New Materials and New Energies, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China (G.Z.)
| | - Yaping Wang
- College of New Materials and New Energies, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China (G.Z.)
| | - Qing Bai
- College of New Materials and New Energies, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China (G.Z.)
| | - Tao Yang
- Julong College, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China; (Z.C.)
| | - Shunpu Li
- College of New Materials and New Energies, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China (G.Z.)
| | - Guangye Zhang
- College of New Materials and New Energies, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China (G.Z.)
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2
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Oswald J, Beretta D, Stiefel M, Furrer R, Lohde S, Vuillaume D, Calame M. Field and Thermal Emission Limited Charge Injection in Au-C60-Graphene van der Waals Vertical Heterostructures for Organic Electronics. ACS APPLIED NANO MATERIALS 2023; 6:9444-9452. [PMID: 37325015 PMCID: PMC10262147 DOI: 10.1021/acsanm.3c01090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Among the family of 2D materials, graphene is the ideal candidate as top or interlayer electrode for hybrid van der Waals heterostructures made of organic thin films and 2D materials due to its high conductivity and mobility and its inherent ability of forming neat interfaces without diffusing in the adjacent organic layer. Understanding the charge injection mechanism at graphene/organic semiconductor interfaces is therefore crucial to develop organic electronic devices. In particular, Gr/C60 interfaces are promising building blocks for future n-type vertical organic transistors exploiting graphene as tunneling base electrode in a two back-to-back Gr/C60 Schottky diode configuration. This work delves into the charge transport mechanism across Au/C60/Gr vertical heterostructures fabricated on Si/SiO2 using a combination of techniques commonly used in the semiconductor industry, where a resist-free CVD graphene layer functions as a top electrode. Temperature-dependent electrical measurements show that the transport mechanism is injection limited and occurs via Fowler-Nordheim tunneling at low temperature, while it is dominated by a nonideal thermionic emission at room and high temperatures, with energy barriers at room temperature of ca. 0.58 and 0.65 eV at the Gr/C60 and Au/C60 interfaces, respectively. Impedance spectroscopy confirms that the organic semiconductor is depleted, and the energy band diagram results in two electron blocking interfaces. The resulting rectifying nature of the Gr/C60 interface could be exploited in organic hot electron transistors and vertical organic permeable-base transistors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacopo Oswald
- Transport
at Nanoscale Interfaces Laboratory, Empa
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Swiss
Nanoscience Institute, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 82, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Davide Beretta
- Transport
at Nanoscale Interfaces Laboratory, Empa
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Michael Stiefel
- Transport
at Nanoscale Interfaces Laboratory, Empa
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Roman Furrer
- Transport
at Nanoscale Interfaces Laboratory, Empa
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Sebastian Lohde
- Transport
at Nanoscale Interfaces Laboratory, Empa
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Dominique Vuillaume
- Institute
of Electronic, Microelectronic and Nanotechnology (IEMN), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Villeneuve d’Ascq 59652, France
| | - Michel Calame
- Transport
at Nanoscale Interfaces Laboratory, Empa
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Swiss
Nanoscience Institute, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 82, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
- Department
of Physics, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 82, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
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3
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Junka R, Yu X. Polymeric nanofibrous scaffolds laden with cell-derived extracellular matrix for bone regeneration. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2020; 113:110981. [PMID: 32487395 PMCID: PMC7292471 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2020.110981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Bone tissue engineering aims to alleviate the shortage of available autograft material and the biological/mechanical incompatibility of allografts through fabrication of bioactive synthetic bone graft substitutes. However, these substitute grafting materials have insufficient biological potency that limits their clinical efficacy in regenerating large defects. Extracellular matrix, a natural tissue scaffold laden with biochemical and structural cues regulating cell adhesion and tissue morphogenesis, may be a versatile supplement that can extend its biological functionality to synthetic grafts. Embedding decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) into synthetic polymers offers a promising strategy to enhance cellular response to synthetic materials, mitigate physical and mechanical limitations of dECMs, and improve clinical utility of synthetic bone grafts. Enriched with dECM biochemical cues, synthetic polymers can be readily fabricated into complex biocomposite grafts that mimic bone structure and stimulate endogenous cells to regenerate bone. In this study, cell-derived dECMs from osteoblast and endothelial cells were incorporated into polycaprolactone (PCL) solutions for electrospinning dual-layer nanofibrous scaffolds with osteogenic and vascular cues. The study examined the bioactivity of dECM scaffolds in osteoblast cultures for cell number, mineral deposits, and osteogenic markers, as well as regeneration of cortical bone defect in a rat femur. Scaffolds with osteoblast dECM had a significantly robust osteoblast proliferation, Alizarin Red staining/concentration, and osteopontin-positive extracellular deposits. Implanted scaffolds increased bone growth in femoral defects, and constructs with both osteogenic and vascular cues significantly improved cortical width. These findings demonstrate the potential to fabricate tailored biomimetic grafts with dECM cues and fibrous architecture for bone applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radoslaw Junka
- Department Biomedical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, United States of America
| | - Xiaojun Yu
- Department Biomedical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, United States of America.
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Siram RBK, Khenkin MV, Niazov-Elkan A, K M A, Weissman H, Katz EA, Visoly-Fisher I, Rybtchinski B. Hybrid organic nanocrystal/carbon nanotube film electrodes for air- and photo-stable perovskite photovoltaics. NANOSCALE 2019; 11:3733-3740. [PMID: 30742182 DOI: 10.1039/c8nr09353a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We report on utilizing free-standing hybrid perylenediimide/carbon nanotube (PDI/CNT) films fabricated in air as back contacts for fully inorganic perovskite solar cells (glass/FTO/dense TiO2/mesoporous TiO2/CsPbBr3/back electrode). The back contact electrode connection is performed by film transfer rather than by vacuum deposition or by wet processing, allowing the formation of highly homogeneous contacts under ambient conditions. The use of this novel electrode in solar cells based on CsPbBr3 resulted in efficiency of 5.8% without a hole transporting layer; it is significantly improved in comparison to the reference cells with standard gold electrodes. Overall device fabrication can be performed on air, using inexpensive processing methods. The hybrid film electrodes dramatically improve the cell photo-stability under ambient conditions and under real-life operating conditions outdoors. The champion unencapsulated device demonstrated less than 30% efficiency loss over 6 weeks of outdoor aging in Negev desert conditions. The CNT/PDI electrodes offer the combination of fabrication simplicity, unique contacting approach, high efficiency and good operational stability for perovskite photovoltaics.
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Zhang G, Zhao J, Chow PCY, Jiang K, Zhang J, Zhu Z, Zhang J, Huang F, Yan H. Nonfullerene Acceptor Molecules for Bulk Heterojunction Organic Solar Cells. Chem Rev 2018; 118:3447-3507. [PMID: 29557657 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 581] [Impact Index Per Article: 96.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The bulk-heterojunction blend of an electron donor and an electron acceptor material is the key component in a solution-processed organic photovoltaic device. In the past decades, a p-type conjugated polymer and an n-type fullerene derivative have been the most commonly used electron donor and electron acceptor, respectively. While most advances of the device performance come from the design of new polymer donors, fullerene derivatives have almost been exclusively used as electron acceptors in organic photovoltaics. Recently, nonfullerene acceptor materials, particularly small molecules and oligomers, have emerged as a promising alternative to replace fullerene derivatives. Compared to fullerenes, these new acceptors are generally synthesized from diversified, low-cost routes based on building block materials with extraordinary chemical, thermal, and photostability. The facile functionalization of these molecules affords excellent tunability to their optoelectronic and electrochemical properties. Within the past five years, there have been over 100 nonfullerene acceptor molecules synthesized, and the power conversion efficiency of nonfullerene organic solar cells has increased dramatically, from ∼2% in 2012 to >13% in 2017. This review summarizes this progress, aiming to describe the molecular design strategy, to provide insight into the structure-property relationship, and to highlight the challenges the field is facing, with emphasis placed on most recent nonfullerene acceptors that demonstrated top-of-the-line photovoltaic performances. We also provide perspectives from a device point of view, wherein topics including ternary blend device, multijunction device, device stability, active layer morphology, and device physics are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangye Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Hong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Center for Tissue Restoration & Reconstruction , Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) , Clear Water Bay , Kowloon, Hong Kong , China.,HKUST-Shenzhen Research Institute , No. 9 Yuexing first RD, Hi-tech Park , Nanshan, Shenzhen 518057 , China
| | - Jingbo Zhao
- Department of Chemistry and Hong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Center for Tissue Restoration & Reconstruction , Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) , Clear Water Bay , Kowloon, Hong Kong , China
| | - Philip C Y Chow
- Department of Chemistry and Hong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Center for Tissue Restoration & Reconstruction , Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) , Clear Water Bay , Kowloon, Hong Kong , China.,HKUST-Shenzhen Research Institute , No. 9 Yuexing first RD, Hi-tech Park , Nanshan, Shenzhen 518057 , China
| | - Kui Jiang
- Department of Chemistry and Hong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Center for Tissue Restoration & Reconstruction , Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) , Clear Water Bay , Kowloon, Hong Kong , China.,HKUST-Shenzhen Research Institute , No. 9 Yuexing first RD, Hi-tech Park , Nanshan, Shenzhen 518057 , China
| | - Jianquan Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Hong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Center for Tissue Restoration & Reconstruction , Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) , Clear Water Bay , Kowloon, Hong Kong , China.,HKUST-Shenzhen Research Institute , No. 9 Yuexing first RD, Hi-tech Park , Nanshan, Shenzhen 518057 , China
| | - Zonglong Zhu
- Department of Chemistry and Hong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Center for Tissue Restoration & Reconstruction , Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) , Clear Water Bay , Kowloon, Hong Kong , China
| | - Jie Zhang
- Institute of Polymer Optoelectronic Materials and Devices, State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510640 , P. R. China
| | - Fei Huang
- Institute of Polymer Optoelectronic Materials and Devices, State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510640 , P. R. China
| | - He Yan
- Department of Chemistry and Hong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Center for Tissue Restoration & Reconstruction , Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) , Clear Water Bay , Kowloon, Hong Kong , China.,HKUST-Shenzhen Research Institute , No. 9 Yuexing first RD, Hi-tech Park , Nanshan, Shenzhen 518057 , China.,Institute of Polymer Optoelectronic Materials and Devices, State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510640 , P. R. China
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6
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Recent Advances of Plasmonic Organic Solar Cells: Photophysical Investigations. Polymers (Basel) 2018; 10:polym10020123. [PMID: 30966159 PMCID: PMC6414879 DOI: 10.3390/polym10020123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2017] [Revised: 01/20/2018] [Accepted: 01/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The surface plasmon resonance (SPR) of metallic nanomaterials, such as gold (Au) and silver (Ag), has been extensively exploited to improve the optical absorption, the charge carrier transport, and the ultimate device performances in organic photovoltaic cells (OPV). With the incorporation of diverse metallic nanostructures in active layers, buffer layers, electrodes, or between adjacent layers of OPVs, multiple plasmonic mechanisms may occur and need to be distinguished to better understand plasmonic enhancement. Steady-state photophysics is a powerful tool for unraveling the plasmonic nature and revealing plasmonic mechanisms such as the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), the propagating plasmon-polariton (SPP), and the plasmon-gap mode. Furthermore, the charge transfer dynamics in the organic semiconductor materials can be elucidated from the transient photophysical investigations. In this review article, the basics of the plasmonic mechanisms and the related metallic nanostructures are briefly introduced. We then outline the recent advances of the plasmonic applications in OPVs emphasizing the linkage between the photophysical properties, the nanometallic geometries, and the photovoltaic performance of the OPV devices.
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Higgins SG, Agostinelli T, Markham S, Whiteman R, Sirringhaus H. Organic Diode Rectifiers Based on a High-Performance Conjugated Polymer for a Near-Field Energy-Harvesting Circuit. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2017; 29:1703782. [PMID: 29052907 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201703782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2017] [Revised: 08/16/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Organic diodes manufactured on a plastic substrate capable of rectifying a high-frequency radio-frequency identification signal (13.56 MHz), with sufficient power to operate an interactive smart tag, are reported. A high-performance conjugated semiconductor (an indacenodithiophene-benzothiadiazole copolymer) is combined with a carefully optimized architecture to satisfy the electrical requirements for an organic-semiconductor-based logic chip.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart G Higgins
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, J. J. Thomson Avenue, Cambridge, CB3 0HE, UK
| | - Tiziano Agostinelli
- FlexEnable Ltd., 34 Cambridge Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge, CB4 0FX, UK
| | - Steve Markham
- FlexEnable Ltd., 34 Cambridge Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge, CB4 0FX, UK
| | | | - Henning Sirringhaus
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, J. J. Thomson Avenue, Cambridge, CB3 0HE, UK
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8
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Ginting RT, Kaur S, Lim DK, Kim JM, Lee JH, Lee SH, Kang JW. Plasmonic Effect of Gold Nanostars in Highly Efficient Organic and Perovskite Solar Cells. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2017; 9:36111-36118. [PMID: 28937203 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b11084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Herein, a novel strategy is presented for enhancing light absorption by incorporating gold nanostars (Au NSs) into both the active layer of organic solar cells (OSCs) and the rear-contact hole transport layer of perovskite solar cells (PSCs). We demonstrate that the power conversion efficiencies of OSCs and PSCs with embedded Au NSs are improved by 6 and 14%, respectively. We find that pegylated Au NSs are greatly dispersable in a chlorobenzene solvent, which enabled complete blending of Au NSs with the active layer. The plasmonic contributions and accelerated charge transfer are believed to improve the short-circuit current density and the fill factor. This study demonstrates the roles of plasmonic nanoparticles in the improved optical absorption, where the improvement in OSCs was attributed to surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and in PSCs was attributed to both SPR and the backscattering effect. Additionally, devices including Au NSs exhibited a better charge separation/transfer, reduced charge recombination rate, and efficient charge transport. This work provides a comprehensive understanding of the roles of plasmonic Au NS particles in OSCs and PSCs, including an insightful approach for the further development of high-performance optoelectronic devices.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Dong-Kwon Lim
- KU-KIST Graduate School of Converging Science and Technology, Korea University , Seoul 136-701, Republic of Korea
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9
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Raghav A, Singh S, Sharma SK, Kabra D, Bag M, Satapathi S. Controlling morphology ofCH3NH3PbI3perovskite film by dual solvent elimination method. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nanoso.2017.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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10
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Bi E, Chen H, Xie F, Wu Y, Chen W, Su Y, Islam A, Grätzel M, Yang X, Han L. Diffusion engineering of ions and charge carriers for stable efficient perovskite solar cells. Nat Commun 2017; 8:15330. [PMID: 28604673 PMCID: PMC5472713 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms15330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2016] [Accepted: 03/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-term stability is crucial for the future application of perovskite solar cells, a promising low-cost photovoltaic technology that has rapidly advanced in the recent years. Here, we designed a nanostructured carbon layer to suppress the diffusion of ions/molecules within perovskite solar cells, an important degradation process in the device. Furthermore, this nanocarbon layer benefited the diffusion of electron charge carriers to enable a high-energy conversion efficiency. Finally, the efficiency on a perovskite solar cell with an aperture area of 1.02 cm2, after a thermal aging test at 85 °C for over 500 h, or light soaking for 1,000 h, was stable of over 15% during the entire test. The present diffusion engineering of ions/molecules and photo generated charges paves a way to realizing long-term stable and highly efficient perovskite solar cells. Ion migration in perovskite solar cells are known to cause hysteresis and instability. Bi et al., report a charge extraction layer based on graphene, fullerenes and carbon quantum dots which suppresses ion diffusion and enhances charge carrier diffusion leading to efficient devices with improved stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enbing Bi
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.,Photovoltaic Materials Unit, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0047, Japan
| | - Han Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Fengxian Xie
- Photovoltaic Materials Unit, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0047, Japan
| | - Yongzhen Wu
- Photovoltaic Materials Unit, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0047, Japan
| | - Wei Chen
- Photovoltaic Materials Unit, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0047, Japan
| | - Yanjie Su
- Key Laboratory for Thin Film and Microfabrication of the Ministry of Education, Department of Micro/Nano Electronics, School of Electronics, Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Ashraful Islam
- Photovoltaic Materials Unit, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0047, Japan
| | - Michael Grätzel
- Laboratory of Photonics and Interfaces (LPI), Station 6, Institute of Chemical Science and Engineering, Faculty of Basic Science, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Xudong Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Liyuan Han
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.,Photovoltaic Materials Unit, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0047, Japan
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