Precise Synthesis of GSH-Specific Fluorescent Probe for Hepatotoxicity Assessment Guided by Theoretical Calculation

Water-Soluble Fluorescent Sensors for Quantification of Trace Cisplatin in Body Fluids from Clinical Cancer Patients

Accurate quantification of cisplatin (cDDP) in body fluids (blood, urine, and ascites) is crucial in monitoring therapeutic processes, assessing drug metabolism, and optimizing treatment schedules for cancer patients. Nonetheless, due to the inherent fluorescence and complexity of the body fluid matrix, along with the low cDDP concentrations in these fluids during treatment, using fluorescent sensors for fluid detection remains a subject of ongoing research. Herein, a series of water-soluble cDDP-activatable fluorescent sensors was rationally constructed by introducing thioether groups to the xanthene skeleton based on the chalcogenophilicity of platinum. These sensors exhibit excellent sensitivity and certain anti-interference capabilities for sensing cDDP in living cells, rat tissues, and zebrafish. Especially, with a simplified sample pretreatment procedure, for the first time, Rh3 and Rh4 have enabled quantitative detection of cDDP levels in diversiform body fluids from clinical ovarian and bladder cancer patients. These results are highly consistent with those obtained by ICP-MS detection. This work paves the way for utilizing fluorescent sensors in clinical body fluid analysis, thus potentially revolutionizing the monitoring methods of cDDP in clinic settings.

A zero-background fluorescent probe for sensing and imaging of glutathione via the "covalent-assembly" approach

Developing selective and sensitive fluorescent probes for the detection of glutathione (GSH) concentration and intracellular distribution is of great significance for early diagnosis and treatment of diseases such as liver injury and cancer since GSH plays irreplaceable roles in regulating intracellular redox homeostasis. Herein, we present a new fluorescent probe that can be specifically activated by GSH through the conjugate addition and hydrolysis induced covalent-assembly approach for achieving zero-background interference fluorescence off-on sensing. Besides, the probe exhibited prominent selectivity and sensitivity, a low detection limit and cytotoxicity, thus successfully realizing specific real-time monitoring and tracking of GSH levels in living cells. As a consequence, this work might provide a potentially promising candidate for validating the function of GSH in various physiological and pathological processes, which is beneficial for early diagnosis and therapeutics of related diseases.

Research Progress of Fluorescent Probes for Detection of Glutathione (GSH): Fluorophore, Photophysical Properties, Biological Applications

Intracellular biothiols, including cysteine (Cys), glutathione (GSH), and homocysteine (Hcy), play a critical role in many physiological and pathological processes. Among them, GSH is the most abundant non-protein mercaptan (1-10 mM) in cells, and the change in GSH concentration level is closely related to the occurrence of many diseases, such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and neurological diseases. Fluorescent probes have attracted much attention due to their advantages of high specificity, high sensitivity, high selectivity, low cost, and high quantum yield. Methods that use optical probes for selective detection of GSH in vitro and in vivo are in high demand. In this paper, we reviewed the most recent five years of research on fluorescence probes for the detection of GSH, including the specific detection of GSH, dual-channel identification of GSH and other substances, and the detection of GSH and other biothiols. According to the type of fluorophore, we classified GSH fluorescent probes into eight classes, including BODIPY, 1,8-Naphthalimide, coumarin, xanthene, rhodamine, cyanine, benzothiazoles, and others. In addition, we roundly discuss the synthesis, detection mechanism, photophysical properties, and biological applications of fluorescent probes. We hope that this review will inspire the exploration of new fluorescent probes for GSH and other related analyses.

In-situ evaluation the fluctuation of hypochlorous acid in acute liver injury mice models with a mitochondria-targeted NIR ratiometric fluorescent probe

Acute liver injury (ALI) is a frequent and devastating liver disease that has been made more prevalent by the excessive use of chemicals, drugs, and alcohol in modern life. Hypochlorous acid (HClO), an important biomarker of oxidative stress originating mainly from the mitochondria, has been shown to be intimately connected to the development and course of ALI. Herein, a novel BODIPY-based NIR ratiometric fluorescent probe Mito-BS was constructed for the specific recognition of mitochondrial HClO. The probe Mito-BS can rapidly respond to HClO within 20 s with a ratiometric fluorescence response (from 680 nm to 645 nm), 24-fold fluorescence intensity ratio enhancement (I645/I680), a wide pH adaptation range (5-9) and the low detection limit (31 nM). The probe Mito-BS has been effectively applied to visualize endogenous and exogenous HClO fluctuations in living zebrafish and cells based on its low cytotoxicity and prominent mitochondria-targeting ability. Furthermore, the fluorescent probe Mito-BS makes it possible to achieve the non-invasive in-situ diagnosis of ALI through in mice, and provides a feasible strategy for early diagnosis and drug therapy of ALI and its complications.

Activatable fluorescent probes for early diagnosis and evaluation of liver injury

With the increase in people's living standards, the number of patients suffering from liver injury keeps on increasing. Traditional diagnostic methods can no longer meet the needs of early and accurate diagnosis due to their limitations in application. However, fluorescent probes based on different fluorophores and nanomaterials have been gradually lighting up medical research due to their unique properties, such as high specificity and non-invasiveness. In addition, accurate identification of the different types of liver injury biomarkers can significantly improve the level of early diagnosis. Therefore, this review reviews the fluorescent probes used in the detection of biomarkers of liver injury over recent years and briefly summarizes the corresponding biomarkers of different types of liver injury. Impressively, this review also lists the structures and the response mechanisms of the different probes, and concludes with an outlook, suggesting directions in which improvements can be made. Finally, we hope that this review will contribute to the further development of fluorescent probes for the early diagnosis and assessment of liver injury.

Imaging and detection of sulfite in acute liver injury with a novel quinoxaline-based fluorescent probe

Herein, a novel fluorescent probe HZY was developed for monitoring the sulfite (SO₃^2-) dynamics. For the first time, the SO₃^2- triggered implement was applied in the acute liver injury (ALI) model. The levulinate was selected to achieve the specific and relatively steady recognition reaction. With the addition of SO₃^2-, the fluorescence response of HZY exhibited a large Stokes shift of 110 nm under the 380 nm excitation. The merits included high selectivity under various pH conditions. Compared with the reported fluorescent probes for sulfite, HZY indicated above-moderate performances including remarkable and rapid response (40 folds, within 15 min), and high sensitivity (limit of detection = 0.21 μM). Further, HZY could visualize the exogenous and endogenous SO₃^2- level in living cells. Moreover, HZY could gauge the changing levels of SO₃^2- in three types (induced by CCl₄, APAP, and alcohol) of ALI models. Both in vivo imaging and depth-of-penetration fluorescence imaging demonstrated that HZY could characterize the developmental and therapeutic status during the liver injury process by measuring the dynamic of SO₃^2-. The successful implementation of this project would promote the accurate in-situ detection of SO₃^2- in liver injury, which was expected to guide the pre-clinical diagnosis and clinical practice.

A fluorescent probe based on Cu(II) complex induced catalysis for repetitive detection of cysteine

Real-time imaging and monitoring of biothiols in living cells are essential for understanding pathophysiological processes. However, the design of the fluorescent probe that has accurate and repeatable real-time monitoring capabilities for these targets is highly challenging. In this study, we prepared a fluorescent sensor, Lc-NBD-Cu(II), which contains a N1, N1, N2-tris-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl) ethane-1,2-diamine as a Cu(II) chelating unit and a 7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazole fluorophore to detect Cysteine (Cys). Emission changes promoted by addition of Cys to this probe are distinctive and correspond to a range of processes including Cys induced loss of Cu(II) from Lc-NBD-Cu(II) to form Lc-NBD, Cu(I) oxidation to reform Cu(II), Cys oxidation to form Cys-Cys, Cu(II) binding to Lc-NBD to reform Lc-NBD-Cu(II), and competitive binding of Cu(II) to Cys-Cys. The study also shows that Lc-NBD-Cu(II) maintains high stability during the sensing process and that it can be utilized over a number of detection cycles. Finally, the findings show that Lc-NBD-Cu(II) can be utilized to repetitively sense Cys in living HeLa cells.

Construction of HClO activated near-infrared fluorescent probe for imaging hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common malignancies in the liver with poor prognosis. In order to improve the prognosis and overall survival of patients with HCC, it is important to identify it at early stage and resect it precisely. Cell microenvironment, active compounds, and enzymes may change during the cancerization of hepatocytes. Hypochlorous acid (HClO), one of the most significant signal molecules in the cellular signaling pathway, plays an important role in many cellular processes. To detect and treat liver cancers, it is imperative to study how HClO levels change in hepatocytes. However, developing fluorescent probes specific to liver cells to detect HClO still challenging. Herein, we designed and synthesized a NIR hepatocyte-specific fluorescent probe (MBH-MT) that displayed excellent optical properties for detecting HClO in biological samples. Cell imaging experiment conducted with the unique probe MBH-MT, showed that the biocompatible sensor is capable of monitoring HClO and distinguishing normal cells from cancer cells (e.g., HepG2, HUVEC, RAW264.7, L02 and HK-2 cells). An organ imaging experiment with the probe MBH-MT demonstrated its effectiveness in diagnosing and imaging hepatocellular carcinoma in vivo. MBH-MT's in situ imaging also demonstrated that it can target and image mouse hepatocellular carcinomas. Furthermore, MBH-MT has also successfully been used to diagnose and guide liver cancer surgery early. In the future, we expect that this powerful tool may be help in the detection and imaging of hepatocellular carcinoma, which may affect a large number of people.

Monitoring glutathione dynamics in DNA replication (S-phase) using a two-photon reversible ratiometric fluorescent probe

The redox regulator glutathione (GSH) migrates to the nucleus to give a safeguard to DNA replication in the S-phase. The fluctuation of GSH dynamics in the cell cycle process may help to understand cancerogenesis or other abnormalities in DNA replication. For the first time, we attempted to track the time-dependent S-phase change using the newly developed ratiometric fluorescent probe Nu-GSH. This probe is highly chemoselective towards glutathione and shows an emission intensity shift from 515 nm to 455 nm. It has shown fluorescence reversibility from blue to green channels while scavenging reactive oxygen species H₂O₂. Both ratiometric fluorescence images and FACS analysis have provided quantitative information on the GSH levels in the nucleoli during DNA replication in the S-phase. Furthermore, GSH fluctuation reciprocated the decay of the S-phase on a time scale. Additionally, its two-photon ability guaranteed its capability to study GSH dynamics in live cells/tissues noninvasively. We envision that the probe Nu-GSH can be used to get high-throughput quantitative information on glutathione dynamics and give an opportunity to monitor its perturbation during the course of cell division.

A water-soluble fluorescent probe for monitoring mitochondrial GSH fluctuations during oxidative stress

In this research, we constructed a styrylpyridine derivative-based fluorescent probe MITO-PQDNs to monitor mitochondrial glutathione (GSH). The probe MITO-PQDNs could react rapidly (20 min) with GSH in PBS buffer and exhibited a strong fluorescence signal (586 nm) as well as a significant Stokes shift (200 nm). Moreover, MITO-PQDNs could quantitatively detect GSH with high sensitivity (LOD = 253 nM). Meanwhile, MITO-PQDNs possessed favorable biocompatibility and could detect both endogenous and exogenous GSH in MCF-7 cells. Above all, MITO-PQDNs enabled the detection of fluctuations in mitochondrial GSH concentrations during oxidative stress.

Fluorescence probe for selectively monitoring biothiols within cells and mouse depression diagnosis

As a global mental disorder, depression is associated with oxidative stress in the brain. Cysteine, a reductive biothiols, regulates the oxidative situation in many biological events including the stress that occurs in the tissues. Exploring the pathology and physiology of depression is still a challenge and always in an urgent need. Thus, developing a new method that could track Cys level without the interferes from other competing substances is of great importance. Herein, we developed a fluorescence probe that could selectively sensing Cys over other biothiols. Besides, we have demonstrated its desirable performance in cellular applications and mouse brain. This work provides a new method for Cys imaging and understanding pathogenesis of depression. We hope the work described here could be used as a potential chemical approach for the diagnosis of Cys associated diseases in clinical applications.

A Novel Fluorescent Probe Strategy Activated by β-Glucuronidase for Assisting Surgical Resection of Liver Cancer

Liver cancer is a primary malignant tumor with a very high fatality rate, which has seriously threatened human health and life. In normal hepatocellular lesions, β-glucuronidase (GLU) activity in liver cancer tissues is significantly increased. Therefore, GLU has become one of the important biomarkers of primary liver cancer. Here, a series of fluorescent probes (DCDH, DCDCH₃, DCDOCH₃, and DCDNO₂) for early diagnosis of liver cancer and auxiliary surgical resection were successfully synthesized. Since the electron-withdrawing group -NO₂ connected to the probe DCDNO₂ accelerates the rapid cleavage of the glycosidic bond, DCDNO₂ exhibits superior fluorescence properties that are more sensitive and rapid than the other three probes DCDH, DCDCH₃, and DCDOCH₃ when detecting GLU. DCDNO₂ has been well-applied in real-time fluorescent visualization imaging for the detection of GLU activity in liver cancer cells and tumor tissues. In addition, DCDNO₂ has also been successfully used in the early diagnosis of liver cancer and real-time imaging to guide the surgical resection of liver cancer tumors. Therefore, DCDNO₂ has great potential for development in bioclinical medicine for the early detection and treatment of liver cancer.

A coumarin-based reversible two-photon fluorescence probe for imaging glutathione near N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors

Glutathione (GSH) is known to play a key role in the modulation of the redox environment in N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. Coumarin derivative 1 bearing cyanoacrylamide and ifenprodil moieties was synthesized and reported to monitor GSH near NMDA receptors. The cyanoacrylamide moiety allows probe 1 to monitor GSH reversibly at pH 7.4 and the ifenprodil group acts as a directing group for NMDA receptors. Two-photon fluorescence microscopy allows probe 1 to successfully sense endogenous GSH in neuronal cells and hippocampal tissues with excitation at 750 nm. Furthermore, the addition of H₂O₂ and GSH induced a decrease and an increase in fluorescence emission. Probe 1 can serve as a potential practical imaging tool to get important information on GSH in the brain.

Molecular-Dimension-Dependent ESIPT Break for Specific Reversible Response to GSH and Its Real-Time Bioimaging

Glutathione (GSH) plays many important roles in maintaining intracellular redox homeostasis, and determining its real-time levels in the biological system is essential for the diagnosis, treatment, and pathological research of related diseases. Fluorescence imaging has been regarded as a powerful tool for tracking biomarkers in vivo, for which specificity, reversibility, and fast response are the main issues to ensure the real-time effective detection of analytes. The determination of GSH is often interfered with by other active sulfur species. However, in addition to the common features of nucleophilic addition, GSH is unique in its large molecular scale. 2-(2-Hydroxyphenyl) benzothiazole (HBT) was often formed in the ESIPT process. In this study, HBT was installed with α,β-unsaturated ketone conjugated coumarin derivates or nitrobenzene, which were used to adjust the reactivity of α,β-unsaturated ketone. Experimental and theoretical calculations found ESIPT to be favorable in HBT-COU but not HBT-COU-NEt₂ or HBT-BEN-NO₂ due to the higher electronic energies in the keto form. Thus, for HBT-COU, in the presence of GSH, the hydrogen-bonding interaction between C═N of the HBT unit and carboxyl of GSH would inhibit the process, simultaneously promoting the Michel addition reaction between α,β-unsaturated ketone and GSH. As a consequence, probe HBT-COU could exhibit a rapid reversible ratiometric response to GSH. Small structures of Hcy and Cys are passivated for such reactions. Cell imaging demonstrated the specific response of the probe to GSH, and the probe was successfully used to monitor fluctuations in GSH concentration during cells apoptosis in real-time.

Recent Progress in Fluorescent Sensors for Drug-Induced Liver Injury Assessment

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a persistent concern in drug discovery and clinical medicine. The current clinical methods to assay DILI by analyzing the enzymes in serum are still not optimal. Recent studies showed that fluorescent sensors would be efficient tools for detecting the concentration and distribution of DILI indicators with high sensitivity and specificity, in real-time, in situ, and with low damage to biosamples, as well as diagnosing DILI. This review focuses on the assessment of DILI, introduces the current mechanisms of DILI, and summarizes the design strategies of fluorescent sensors for DILI indicators, including ions, small molecules, and related enzymes. Some challenges for developing DILI diagnostic fluorescent sensors are put forward. We believe that these design strategies and challenges to evaluate DILI will inspire chemists and give them opportunities to further develop other fluorescent sensors for accurate diagnoses and therapies for other diseases.

Visualizing the Underlying Signaling Pathway Related to Nitric Oxide and Glutathione in Cardiovascular Disease Therapy by a Sequentially Activated Fluorescent Probe

Clarifying the signaling pathway associated with nitric oxide (NO) and glutathione (GSH) in cardiovascular disease therapy is important for understanding its physiological and pathological processes but is challenging due to the lack of efficient analytical techniques. Herein, we report a BODIPY-based fluorescent probe for recognition of NO and GSH in sequence with high sensitivity and selectivity. The probe exhibits turn-on fluorescence triggered by NO, followed by red-shifted emission in the presence of GSH. The sequentially activated mechanism allows the visualization of NO-induced GSH upregulation in drug-treated endothelial cells and zebrafish for the first time, revealing a signal pathway during the therapy. We hope that it can be used as a convenient and efficient tool for the study of the interplay between NO and GSH and for the screening of effective drugs for cardiovascular disease therapy.

An ICT-based fluorescent probe guided by theoretical calculation for selectively mapping endogenous GSH in living cells

Glutathione (GSH) is one of the most essential bio-thiols to maintain the redox balance of organisms which is strongly associated with many physiological processes. Detecting the concentration and mapping the distribution of GSH in the living system is significant to study many related diseases. In this work, we have successfully constructed an ICT-based model to guide the design and synthesis of GSH specific fluorescent probe CF1. A serials spectroscopy test demonstrated that the response of CF1 towards GSH owned large stokes shift (~167 nm) and an excellent linear relationship (0-120 μM, R² = 0.9961). Furthermore, CF1 was successfully applied to image endogenous GSH in different cell lines with high sensitivity. This work is instructive for the oriented synthesis of ICT-based functional fluorescent probe and the further visualization of intracellular targets in the living system.

Imaging and Monitoring the Hydrogen Peroxide Level in Heart Failure by a Fluorescent Probe with a Large Stokes Shift

Heart failure is the terminal stage of many cardiovascular diseases and is considered to be closely related to oxidative stress. Early understanding of pathogenesis can greatly improve the treatment and reduce the mortality of heart disease. In this work, based on the analysis of coumarin derivates by theoretical calculations, we designed and synthesized a fluorescent probe BCO with a large Stokes shift (107 nm) and excellent selectivity toward H₂O₂ in a living system. The distribution of H₂O₂ in the heart and thoracic aorta tissues was imaged with the aid of the probe BCO, which demonstrated that the cellular H₂O₂ level is upregulated in heart failure. This work provides a useful tool, BCO, for the evaluation of cellular oxidative stress and to further understand the pathophysiology process of heart disease.

TDDFT study on the photophysical properties of coumarinyl chalcones and sensing mechanism of a derived fluorescent probe for hydrogen sulfide

Coumarin-chalcone hybrids have attracted much attention in recent years due to their important optical properties. Herein, the photophysical properties of a series of coumarinyl chalcones and the sensing mechanism for H₂S of a related fluorescent probe CC-DNP were investigated using density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) methods. The predicted spectral properties agree well with the experimental results, which allowed an assignment of the spectra. Our calculations successfully clarified the experimental observed fluorescence "off-on" effect and the fluorescent quenching mechanism of the probe. The results revealed that the first excited state (S₁) of the probe CC-DNP is a dark state with obvious charge transfer from coumarin unit to 2,4-dinitrophenyl (DNP) moiety, which results in the fluorescence quenching via the nonradiative photoinduced electron transfer (PET) process. On the other hand, the excited state S₁ in the thiolysis product CC-OH decayed directly to S₀, and thus the fluorescence is recovered.

Single-wavelength phototheranostics for colon cancer via the thiolytic reaction

It's a huge challenge to develop effective nanosystems that combine the capabilities of diagnoses and therapies together for colon cancer in the clinic. Herein, we constructed a far-red absorbing phototheranostic nanosystem (FR-H2S) based on the thiolytic reaction of a dinitrophenyl modified phototheranostic prodrug and over-expressed H2S in colon cancer sites for precise imaging-guided phototherapy. FR-H2S with a BODIPY core not only could work as an imaging probe for diagnosis but also act as a phototherapeutic agent for cancer treatment under a single FR laser source (650 nm). FR-H2S exhibited a gradually enhanced fluorescence emission for precise diagnosis of H2S-rich colon tumor sites. After entering tumor cells, FR-H2S could generate abundant 1O2 and heat for phototherapies timely by using the same laser source (650 nm). We believe that this precise imaging-guided phototheranostic nanosystem could provide a promising approach to colon cancer with minimal damage.

Chemical probes for drug-induced liver injury imaging

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) has been a long-standing concern of modern medicine, and the single most frequent reason for drug nonapprovals and postapproval restrictions or withdrawals. Chemical probes for early diagnosis of DILI has triggered a tremendous interest in the field of molecular imaging. In this review, we make a brief summary of the recently developed chemical probes and their applications in DILI imaging with special attention to the design of chemical probes, mechanism of their actions and their performances in DILI imaging.