1
|
He Y, Su Q, Zhao L, Zhang L, Yu L, Shi J. Historical perspectives and recent advances in small molecule ligands of selective/biased/multi-targeted μ/δ/κ opioid receptor (2019-2022). Bioorg Chem 2023; 141:106869. [PMID: 37797454 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2023.106869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023]
Abstract
The opioids have been used for more than a thousand years and are not only the most widely prescribed drugs for moderate to severe pain and acute pain, but also the preferred drugs. However, their non-analgesic effects, especially respiratory depression and potential addiction, are important factors that plague the safety of clinical use and are an urgent problem for pharmacological researchers to address. Current research on analgesic drugs has evolved into different directions: de-opioidization; application of pharmacogenomics to individualize the use of opioids; development of new opioids with less adverse effects. The development of new opioid drugs remains a hot research topic, and with the in-depth study of opioid receptors and intracellular signal transduction mechanisms, new research ideas have been provided for the development of new opioid analgesics with less side effects and stronger analgesic effects. The development of novel opioid drugs in turn includes selective opioid receptor ligands, biased opioid receptor ligands, and multi-target opioid receptor ligands and positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) or antagonists and the single compound as multi-targeted agnoists/antagonists for different receptors. PAMs strategies are also getting newer and are the current research hotspots, including the BMS series of compounds and others, which are extensive and beyond the scope of this review. This review mainly focuses on the selective/biased/multi-targeted MOR/DOR/KOR (mu opioid receptor/delta opioid receptor/kappa opioid receptor) small molecule ligands and involves some cryo-electron microscopy (cryoEM) and structure-based approaches as well as the single compound as multi-targeted agnoists/antagonists for different receptors from 2019 to 2022, including discovery history, activities in vitro and vivo, and clinical studies, in an attempt to provide ideas for the development of novel opioid analgesics with fewer side effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ye He
- Department of Pharmacy, Personalized Drug Therapy Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Academy of Medical Science & Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610072, China
| | - Qian Su
- Department of Health Management & Institute of Health Management, Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610072, China
| | - Liyun Zhao
- Department of Pharmacy, Personalized Drug Therapy Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Academy of Medical Science & Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610072, China
| | - Lijuan Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Personalized Drug Therapy Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Academy of Medical Science & Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610072, China.
| | - Lu Yu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences and Sichuan provincial People's Hospital, Chengdu, 610072, China.
| | - Jianyou Shi
- Department of Pharmacy, Personalized Drug Therapy Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Academy of Medical Science & Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610072, China; State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, Sichuan, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Costanzo G, Turnaturi R, Parenti C, Spoto S, Piana S, Dichiara M, Zagni C, Galambos AR, Essmat N, Marrazzo A, Amata E, Al-Khrasani M, Pasquinucci L. New Insights into the Opioid Analgesic Profile of cis-(-)- N-Normetazocine-derived Ligands. Molecules 2023; 28:4827. [PMID: 37375382 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28124827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In this work, we report on the in vitro and in vivo pharmacological properties of LP1 analogs to complete the series of structural modifications aimed to generate compounds with improved analgesia. To do that, the phenyl ring in the N-substituent of our lead compound LP1 was replaced by an electron-rich or electron-deficient ring and linked through a propanamide or butyramide spacer at the basic nitrogen of the (-)-cis-N-normetazocine skeleton. In radioligand binding assays, compounds 3 and 7 were found to display nanomolar binding affinity for the μ opioid receptor (MOR) (Ki = 5.96 ± 0.08 nM and 1.49 ± 0.24 nM, respectively). In the mouse vas deferens (MVD) assay, compound 3 showed an antagonist effect against DAMGO ([D-Ala2, N-MePhe4, Gly-ol]-enkephalin), a highly selective MOR prototype agonist, whereas compound 7 produced naloxone reversible effect at MOR. Moreover, compound 7, as potent as LP1 and DAMGO at MOR, was able to reduce thermal and inflammatory pain assessed by the mouse tail-flick test and rat paw pressure thresholds (PPTs) measured by a Randall-Selitto test.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giuliana Costanzo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Via Santa Sofia 97, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Rita Turnaturi
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Carmela Parenti
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Salvatore Spoto
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Silvia Piana
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Maria Dichiara
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Chiara Zagni
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Anna Rita Galambos
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad tér 4, H-1089 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Nariman Essmat
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad tér 4, H-1089 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Agostino Marrazzo
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Emanuele Amata
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Mahmoud Al-Khrasani
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad tér 4, H-1089 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Lorella Pasquinucci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Imam MZ, Kuo A, Ghassabian S, Cai Y, Qin Y, Li T, Smith MT. CYX-5, a G-protein biassed MOP receptor agonist, DOP receptor antagonist and KOP receptor agonist, evokes constipation but not respiratory depression relative to morphine in rats. Pharmacol Rep 2023; 75:634-646. [PMID: 36637684 PMCID: PMC10227131 DOI: 10.1007/s43440-023-00446-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 01/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Strong opioid analgesics such as morphine alleviate moderate to severe acute nociceptive pain (e.g. post-surgical or post-trauma pain) as well as chronic cancer pain. However, they evoke many adverse effects and so there is an unmet need for opioid analgesics with improved tolerability. Recently, a prominent hypothesis has been that opioid-related adverse effects are mediated by β-arrestin2 recruitment at the µ-opioid (MOP) receptor and this stimulated research on discovery of G-protein biassed opioid analgesics. In other efforts, opioids with MOP agonist and δ-opioid (DOP) receptor antagonist profiles are promising for reducing side effects c.f. morphine. Herein, we report on the in vivo pharmacology of a novel opioid peptide (CYX-5) that is a G-protein biassed MOP receptor agonist, DOP receptor antagonist and kappa opioid (KOP) receptor agonist. METHODS Male Sprague-Dawley received intracerebroventricular bolus doses of CYX-5 (3, 10, 20 nmol), morphine (100 nmol) or vehicle, and antinociception (tail flick) was assessed relative to constipation (charcoal meal and castor oil-induced diarrhoea tests) and respiratory depression (whole body plethysmography). RESULTS CYX-5 evoked naloxone-sensitive, moderate antinociception, at the highest dose tested. Although CYX-5 did not inhibit gastrointestinal motility, it reduced stool output markedly in the castor oil-induced diarrhoea test. In contrast to morphine that evoked respiratory depression, CYX-5 increased tidal volume, thereby stimulating respiration. CONCLUSION Despite its lack of recruitment of β-arrestin2 at MOP, DOP and KOP receptors, CYX-5 evoked constipation, implicating a mechanism other than β-arrestin2 recruitment at MOP, DOP and KOP receptors, mediating constipation evoked by CYX-5 and potentially other opioid ligands.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Zafar Imam
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, St Lucia Campus, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Andy Kuo
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, St Lucia Campus, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Sussan Ghassabian
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, St Lucia Campus, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Yunxin Cai
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yajuan Qin
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Tingyou Li
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Maree T Smith
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, St Lucia Campus, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Smith MT, Kong D, Kuo A, Imam MZ, Williams CM. Multitargeted Opioid Ligand Discovery as a Strategy to Retain Analgesia and Reduce Opioid-Related Adverse Effects. J Med Chem 2023; 66:3746-3784. [PMID: 36856340 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c01695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/02/2023]
Abstract
The global "opioid crisis" has placed enormous pressure on the opioid ligand discovery community to produce novel opioid analgesics with superior opioid-related adverse-effect profiles compared with morphine. In this Perspective, the multitargeted opioid ligand strategy for the discovery of opioid analgesics with superior preclinical therapeutic indices relative to morphine is reviewed and discussed. Dual-targeted μ-opioid (MOP)/δ-opioid (DOP) ligands in which the in vitro DOP antagonist potency at least equals that of the MOP agonist activity, and are devoid of DOP or κ-opioid (KOP) agonist activity, are sufficiently promising candidates to warrant further investigation. Dual-targeted MOP/NOP partial agonists have superior preclinical therapeutic indices to morphine and/or fentanyl in nonhuman primates and are also considered promising. Based on the poor preclinical and clinical therapeutic indices of cebranopadol, which is a full agonist at MOP, DOP, and NOP receptors and a partial agonist at the KOP receptor, this pharmacologic template should be avoided.
Collapse
|
5
|
Stefanucci A, Minosi P, Pieretti S, Tanguturi P, Molnar G, Scioli G, Marinaccio L, Della Valle A, Streicher JM, Mollica A. Design of Analgesic Trivalent Peptides with Low Withdrawal Symptoms: Probing the Antinociceptive Profile of Novel Linear and Cyclic Peptides as Opioid Pan Ligands. ACS Chem Neurosci 2023; 14:506-515. [PMID: 36651179 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.3c00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The discovery of efficacious and safe analgesics with reduced side effects is the foremost challenge in the pain field. In this work, we report the in vitro and in vivo evaluation of linear and cyclic analogues of biphalin with the aim to complete the series of structural modifications previously applied in the development of opioid peptides incorporating a xylene bridge. Replacement of Tyr1,1' by Dmt (2,5-dimethyltyrosine) in the linear biphalin analogue AM94 and cyclic analogue MACE4 resulted in two new compounds (namely, MJ2 and MJ5) endowed with improved KOR/MOR/DOR binding affinity. Both compounds showed a strong antinociceptive profile in in vivo models of nociception, allodynia, and hyperalgesia via the tail flick, hot plate, and formalin tests after intracerebroventricular and subcutaneous administration. One of these ligands, MJ2, was also tested in tolerance and dependence studies, exhibiting very little withdrawal symptoms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Azzurra Stefanucci
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Universitá; di Chieti-Pescara "G. d'Annunzio", Via dei Vestini 31, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Paola Minosi
- Centro Nazionale Ricerca e Valutazione Preclinica e Clinica dei Farmaci, Istituto Superiore di Sanita, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Stefano Pieretti
- Centro Nazionale Ricerca e Valutazione Preclinica e Clinica dei Farmaci, Istituto Superiore di Sanita, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | | | - Gabriella Molnar
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85012, United States
| | - Giuseppe Scioli
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Universitá; di Chieti-Pescara "G. d'Annunzio", Via dei Vestini 31, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Lorenza Marinaccio
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Universitá; di Chieti-Pescara "G. d'Annunzio", Via dei Vestini 31, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Alice Della Valle
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Universitá; di Chieti-Pescara "G. d'Annunzio", Via dei Vestini 31, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - John M Streicher
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85012, United States.,Comprehensive Pain and Addiction Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85012, United States
| | - Adriano Mollica
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Universitá; di Chieti-Pescara "G. d'Annunzio", Via dei Vestini 31, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Abstract
This paper is the forty-third consecutive installment of the annual anthological review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system, summarizing articles published during 2020 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides and receptors as well as effects of opioid/opiate agonists and antagonists. The review is subdivided into the following specific topics: molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors (1), the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia in animals (2) and humans (3), opioid-sensitive and opioid-insensitive effects of nonopioid analgesics (4), opioid peptide and receptor involvement in tolerance and dependence (5), stress and social status (6), learning and memory (7), eating and drinking (8), drug abuse and alcohol (9), sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (10), mental illness and mood (11), seizures and neurologic disorders (12), electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (13), general activity and locomotion (14), gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (15), cardiovascular responses (16), respiration and thermoregulation (17), and immunological responses (18).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Bodnar
- Department of Psychology and Neuropsychology Doctoral Sub-Program, Queens College, City University of New York, Flushing, NY, 11367, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Dichiara M, Artacho-Cordón A, Turnaturi R, Santos-Caballero M, González-Cano R, Pasquinucci L, Barbaraci C, Rodríguez-Gómez I, Gómez-Guzmán M, Marrazzo A, Cobos EJ, Amata E. Dual Sigma-1 receptor antagonists and hydrogen sulfide-releasing compounds for pain treatment: Design, synthesis, and pharmacological evaluation. Eur J Med Chem 2022; 230:114091. [PMID: 35016113 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.114091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
The development of σ1 receptor antagonists hybridized with a H2S-donor is here reported. We aimed to obtain improved analgesic effects when compared to σ1 receptor antagonists or H2S-donors alone. In an in vivo model of sensory hypersensitivity, thioamide 1a induced analgesia which was synergistically enhanced when associated with the σ1 receptor antagonist BD-1063. The selective σ1 receptor agonist PRE-084 completely reversed this effect. Four thioamide H2S-σ1 receptor hybrids (5a-8a) and their amide derivatives (5b-8b) were synthesized. Compound 7a (AD164) robustly released H2S and showed selectivity for σ1 receptor over σ2 and opioid receptors. This compound induced marked analgesia that was reversed by PRE-084. The amide analogue 7b (AD163) showed only minimal analgesia. Further studies showed that 7a exhibited negligible acute toxicity, together with a favorable pharmacokinetic profile. To the best of our knowledge, compound 7a is the first dual-acting ligand with simultaneous H2S-release and σ1 antagonistic activities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Dichiara
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, Università Degli Studi di Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, 95125, Catania, Italy
| | - Antonia Artacho-Cordón
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical Research Center (Neurosciences Institute), University of Granada and Biosanitary Research Institute Ibs.Granada, 18016, Granada, Spain
| | - Rita Turnaturi
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, Università Degli Studi di Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, 95125, Catania, Italy
| | - Miriam Santos-Caballero
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical Research Center (Neurosciences Institute), University of Granada and Biosanitary Research Institute Ibs.Granada, 18016, Granada, Spain
| | - Rafael González-Cano
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical Research Center (Neurosciences Institute), University of Granada and Biosanitary Research Institute Ibs.Granada, 18016, Granada, Spain
| | - Lorella Pasquinucci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, Università Degli Studi di Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, 95125, Catania, Italy
| | - Carla Barbaraci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, Università Degli Studi di Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, 95125, Catania, Italy
| | - Isabel Rodríguez-Gómez
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, 18016, Granada, Spain
| | - Manuel Gómez-Guzmán
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada and Biosanitary Research Institute Ibs.Granada, 18016, Granada, Spain
| | - Agostino Marrazzo
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, Università Degli Studi di Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, 95125, Catania, Italy
| | - Enrique J Cobos
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical Research Center (Neurosciences Institute), University of Granada and Biosanitary Research Institute Ibs.Granada, 18016, Granada, Spain.
| | - Emanuele Amata
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, Università Degli Studi di Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, 95125, Catania, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Pasquinucci L, Parenti C, Georgoussi Z, Reina L, Tomarchio E, Turnaturi R. LP1 and LP2: Dual-Target MOPr/DOPr Ligands as Drug Candidates for Persistent Pain Relief. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26144168. [PMID: 34299443 PMCID: PMC8305117 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26144168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Although persistent pain is estimated to affect about 20% of the adult population, current treatments have poor results. Polypharmacology, which is the administration of more than one drug targeting on two or more different sites of action, represents a prominent therapeutic approach for the clinical management of persistent pain. Thus, in the drug discovery process the "one-molecule-multiple targets" strategy nowadays is highly recognized. Indeed, multitarget ligands displaying a better antinociceptive activity with fewer side effects, combined with favorable pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic characteristics, have already been shown. Multitarget ligands possessing non-opioid/opioid and opioid/opioid mechanisms of action are considered as potential drug candidates for the management of various pain conditions. In particular, dual-target MOPr (mu opioid peptide receptor)/DOPr (delta opioid peptide receptor) ligands exhibit an improved antinociceptive profile associated with a reduced tolerance-inducing capability. The benzomorphan-based compounds LP1 and LP2 belong to this class of dual-target MOPr/DOPr ligands. In the present manuscript, the structure-activity relationships and the pharmacological fingerprint of LP1 and LP2 compounds as suitable drug candidates for persistent pain relief is described.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lorella Pasquinucci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
- Correspondence: (L.P.); (R.T.); Tel.: +39-095-738-4273 (L.P. & R.T.)
| | - Carmela Parenti
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy;
| | - Zafiroula Georgoussi
- Laboratory of Cellular Signaling and Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Biosciences and Applications, National Centre for Scientific Research “Demokritos” Ag. Paraskevi-Attikis, 15310 Athens, Greece;
| | - Lorena Reina
- Postgraduate School of Clinical Pharmacology, Toxicology University of Catania, via S. Sofia n. 97, 95100 Catania, Italy;
| | - Emilia Tomarchio
- Postgraduate School of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, University of Milan, Via Francesco Sforza, 35, 20122 Milan, Italy;
| | - Rita Turnaturi
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
- Correspondence: (L.P.); (R.T.); Tel.: +39-095-738-4273 (L.P. & R.T.)
| |
Collapse
|