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Secme A, Kucukoglu B, Pisheh HS, Alatas YC, Tefek U, Uslu HD, Kaynak BE, Alhmoud H, Hanay MS. Dielectric Detection of Single Nanoparticles Using a Microwave Resonator Integrated with a Nanopore. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:7827-7834. [PMID: 38405444 PMCID: PMC10882703 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c07506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
The characterization of individual nanoparticles in a liquid constitutes a critical challenge for the environmental, material, and biological sciences. To detect nanoparticles, electronic approaches are especially desirable owing to their compactness and lower costs. While electronic detection in the form of resistive-pulse sensing has enabled the acquisition of geometric properties of various analytes, impedimetric measurements to obtain dielectric signatures of nanoparticles have scarcely been reported. To explore this orthogonal sensing modality, we developed an impedimetric sensor based on a microwave resonator with a nanoscale sensing gap surrounding a nanopore built on a 220 nm silicon nitride membrane. The microwave resonator has a coplanar waveguide configuration with a resonance frequency of approximately 6.6 GHz. The approach of single nanoparticles near the sensing region and their translocation through the nanopores induced sudden changes in the impedance of the structure. The impedance changes, in turn, were picked up by the phase response of the microwave resonator. We worked with 100 and 50 nm polystyrene nanoparticles to observe single-particle events. Our current implementation was limited by the nonuniform electric field at the sensing region. This work provides a complementary sensing modality for nanoparticle characterization, where the dielectric response, rather than ionic current, determines the signal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arda Secme
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
- UNAM
− Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
| | - Berk Kucukoglu
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
- UNAM
− Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
| | - Hadi S. Pisheh
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
- UNAM
− Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
| | - Yagmur Ceren Alatas
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
- UNAM
− Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
| | - Uzay Tefek
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
- UNAM
− Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
| | - Hatice Dilara Uslu
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
- UNAM
− Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
| | - Batuhan E. Kaynak
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
- UNAM
− Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
| | - Hashim Alhmoud
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
- UNAM
− Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
| | - M. Selim Hanay
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
- UNAM
− Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
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2
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Farokh Payam A, Passian A. Imaging beyond the surface region: Probing hidden materials via atomic force microscopy. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadg8292. [PMID: 37379392 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adg8292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023]
Abstract
Probing material properties at surfaces down to the single-particle scale of atoms and molecules has been achieved, but high-resolution subsurface imaging remains a nanometrology challenge due to electromagnetic and acoustic dispersion and diffraction. The atomically sharp probe used in scanning probe microscopy (SPM) has broken these limits at surfaces. Subsurface imaging is possible under certain physical, chemical, electrical, and thermal gradients present in the material. Of all the SPM techniques, atomic force microscopy has entertained unique opportunities for nondestructive and label-free measurements. Here, we explore the physics of the subsurface imaging problem and the emerging solutions that offer exceptional potential for visualization. We discuss materials science, electronics, biology, polymer and composite sciences, and emerging quantum sensing and quantum bio-imaging applications. The perspectives and prospects of subsurface techniques are presented to stimulate further work toward enabling noninvasive high spatial and spectral resolution investigation of materials including meta- and quantum materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Farokh Payam
- Nanotechnology and Integrated Bioengineering Centre, School of Engineering, Ulster University, Belfast, UK
| | - Ali Passian
- Quantum Computing and Sensing, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
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3
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Joseph CH, Capoccia G, Lucibello A, Proietti E, Sardi GM, Bartolucci G, Marcelli R. Fabrication of Ultra-Sharp Tips by Dynamic Chemical Etching Process for Scanning Near-Field Microwave Microscopy. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:3360. [PMID: 36992071 PMCID: PMC10056389 DOI: 10.3390/s23063360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Revised: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
This work details an effective dynamic chemical etching technique to fabricate ultra-sharp tips for Scanning Near-Field Microwave Microscopy (SNMM). The protruded cylindrical part of the inner conductor in a commercial SMA (Sub Miniature A) coaxial connector is tapered by a dynamic chemical etching process using ferric chloride. The technique is optimized to fabricate ultra-sharp probe tips with controllable shapes and tapered down to have a radius of tip apex around ∼1 μm. The detailed optimization facilitated the fabrication of reproducible high-quality probes suitable for non-contact SNMM operation. A simple analytical model is also presented to better describe the dynamics of the tip formation. The near-field characteristics of the tips are evaluated by finite element method (FEM) based electromagnetic simulations and the performance of the probes has been validated experimentally by means of imaging a metal-dielectric sample using the in-house scanning near-field microwave microscopy system.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. H. Joseph
- Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems, National Research Council (CNR-IMM), Via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133 Rome, Italy
- Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Via del Politecnico 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Capoccia
- Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems, National Research Council (CNR-IMM), Via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Lucibello
- Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems, National Research Council (CNR-IMM), Via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Emanuela Proietti
- Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems, National Research Council (CNR-IMM), Via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Maria Sardi
- Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems, National Research Council (CNR-IMM), Via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Giancarlo Bartolucci
- Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Via del Politecnico 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Romolo Marcelli
- Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems, National Research Council (CNR-IMM), Via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133 Rome, Italy
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4
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Wang S, Luo Z, Liang J, Peng S, Hu J, He J, Li Q. Nanoscale mapping of electric polarizability in a heterogeneous dielectric material with surface irregularities. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 32:505711. [PMID: 34525468 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ac26ff] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Nanoscale mapping of electric polarizability in a heterogeneous dielectric material with surface irregularities is of scientific and technical significance, but remains challenging. Here, we present an approach based on intermodulation electrostatic force microscopy (EFM) in conjunction with finite element computation for precise and high-resolution mapping of polarizability in dielectric materials. Instead of using electrostatic force in conventional quantitative EFM approaches, the force gradient is acquired to achieve an unprecedented spatial resolution. In the meantime, the finite element model is applied to eliminate the interference from the heterogeneity and surface irregularity of the sample. This approach directly reveals the high polarization ability of the amorphous region in a ferroelectric, semi-crystalline polymer with significant surface roughness, i.e. poly (vinylidene fluoride-co-chlorotrifluoroethylene), in which the result is consistent with the predicted data in the latest research. This work presenting a quantitative approach to nanoscale mapping of electric polarizability with unprecedented spatial resolution may help to reveal the complex property-structure correlation in heterogeneous dielectric materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaojie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhen Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiajie Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Simin Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Jingliang He
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Qi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Power System, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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5
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Checa M, Millan-Solsona R, Mares AG, Pujals S, Gomila G. Fast Label-Free Nanoscale Composition Mapping of Eukaryotic Cells Via Scanning Dielectric Force Volume Microscopy and Machine Learning. SMALL METHODS 2021; 5:e2100279. [PMID: 34928004 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202100279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Mapping the biochemical composition of eukaryotic cells without the use of exogenous labels is a long-sought objective in cell biology. Recently, it has been shown that composition maps on dry single bacterial cells with nanoscale spatial resolution can be inferred from quantitative nanoscale dielectric constant maps obtained with the scanning dielectric microscope. Here, it is shown that this approach can also be applied to the much more challenging case of fixed and dry eukaryotic cells, which are highly heterogeneous and show micrometric topographic variations. More importantly, it is demonstrated that the main bottleneck of the technique (the long computation times required to extract the nanoscale dielectric constant maps) can be shortcut by using supervised neural networks, decreasing them from weeks to seconds in a wokstation computer. This easy-to-use data-driven approach opens the door for in situ and on-the-fly label free nanoscale composition mapping of eukaryotic cells with scanning dielectric microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martí Checa
- Nanoscale Bioelectrical Characterization Group, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Carrer Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
| | - Ruben Millan-Solsona
- Nanoscale Bioelectrical Characterization Group, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Carrer Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
- Departament d'Enginyeria Electrònica i Biomèdica, Universitat de Barcelona, Carrer Martí i Franquès 1, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
| | - Adrianna Glinkowska Mares
- Nanoscopy for Nanomedicine Group, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Carrer Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
| | - Silvia Pujals
- Departament d'Enginyeria Electrònica i Biomèdica, Universitat de Barcelona, Carrer Martí i Franquès 1, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
- Nanoscopy for Nanomedicine Group, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Carrer Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
| | - Gabriel Gomila
- Nanoscale Bioelectrical Characterization Group, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Carrer Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
- Departament d'Enginyeria Electrònica i Biomèdica, Universitat de Barcelona, Carrer Martí i Franquès 1, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
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6
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Grall S, Alić I, Pavoni E, Awadein M, Fujii T, Müllegger S, Farina M, Clément N, Gramse G. Attoampere Nanoelectrochemistry. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2021; 17:e2101253. [PMID: 34121314 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202101253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical microscopy techniques have extended the understanding of surface chemistry to the micrometer and even sub-micrometer level. However, fundamental questions related to charge transport at the solid-electrolyte interface, such as catalytic reactions or operation of individual ion channels, require improved spatial resolutions down to the nanoscale. A prerequisite for single-molecule electrochemical sensitivity is the reliable detection of a few electrons per second, that is, currents in the atto-Ampere (10-18 A) range, 1000 times below today's electrochemical microscopes. This work reports local cyclic voltammetry (CV) measurements at the solid-liquid interface on ferrocene self-assembled monolayer (SAM) with sub-atto-Ampere sensitivity and simultaneous spatial resolution < 80 nm. Such sensitivity is obtained through measurements of the charging of the local faradaic interface capacitance at GHz frequencies. Nanometer-scale details of different molecular organizations with a 19% packing density difference are resolved, with an extremely small dispersion of the molecular electrical properties. This is predicted previously based on weak electrostatic interactions between neighboring redox molecules in a SAM configuration. These results open new perspectives for nano-electrochemistry like the study of quantum mechanical resonance in complex molecules and a wide range of applications from electrochemical catalysis to biophysics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Grall
- Institute of Biophysics, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, 4020, Austria
| | - Ivan Alić
- Institute of Biophysics, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, 4020, Austria
| | - Eleonora Pavoni
- Department of Information Engineering, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, 60131, Italy
| | - Mohamed Awadein
- Keysight Labs Austria, Keysight Technologies, Linz, 4020, Austria
| | - Teruo Fujii
- LIMMS/CNRS, Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 153-8505, Japan
| | - Stefan Müllegger
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid-State Physics, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, 4040, Austria
| | - Marco Farina
- Department of Information Engineering, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, 60131, Italy
| | - Nicolas Clément
- LIMMS/CNRS, Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 153-8505, Japan
| | - Georg Gramse
- Institute of Biophysics, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, 4020, Austria
- Keysight Labs Austria, Keysight Technologies, Linz, 4020, Austria
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7
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Zhang L, Lu JR, Waigh TA. Electronics of peptide- and protein-based biomaterials. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2021; 287:102319. [PMID: 33248339 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2020.102319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Biologically inspired peptide- and protein-based materials are at the forefront of organic bioelectronics research due to their inherent conduction properties and excellent biocompatibility. Peptides have the advantages of structural simplicity and ease of synthesis providing credible prospects for mass production, whereas naturally expressed proteins offer inspiration with many examples of high performance evolutionary optimised bioelectronics properties. We review recent advances in the fundamental conduction mechanisms, experimental techniques and exemplar applications for the bioelectronics of self-assembling peptides and proteins. Diverse charge transfer processes, such as tunnelling, hopping and coupled transfer, are found in naturally occurring biological systems with peptides and proteins as the predominant building blocks to enable conduction in biology. Both theory and experiments allow detailed investigation of bioelectronic properties in order to design functionalized peptide- and protein-based biomaterials, e.g. to create biocompatible aqueous electrodes. We also highlight the design of bioelectronics devices based on peptides/proteins including field-effect transistors, piezoelectric energy harvesters and optoelectronics.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Zhang
- Biological Physics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - J R Lu
- Biological Physics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK.
| | - T A Waigh
- Biological Physics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK; Photon Science Institute, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK.
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8
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Li L, Steinmetz NF, Eppell SJ, Zypman FR. Charge Calibration Standard for Atomic Force Microscope Tips in Liquids. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2020; 36:13621-13632. [PMID: 33155810 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.0c02455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
An electric charge standard with nanoscale resolution is created using the known charge distribution of a single tobacco mosaic virus coat protein combined with the known packing of these proteins in the virus capsid. This advances the ability to measure charge on nanometric samples. Experimental atomic force microscope (AFM) force-distance curves are collected under aqueous conditions with controlled pH and ion concentration. A mathematical model that considers a polarizable dielectric tip immersed in an electrolyte is used to obtain charge density from the AFM measurements. Interactions between the tip and the sample are modeled using theory that includes monopolar electrostatic interactions, dipolar interactions, screening from both the dielectric nature of ambient water and solvated ions as described by the linear Poisson-Boltzmann equation, and hard-core repulsion. It is found that the tip charge density changes on a timescale of hours requiring recalibration of the tip for experiments lasting more than an hour. As an example of how a charge-calibrated tip may be used, the surface charge densities on 20 individual carboxylate-modified polystyrene (PS) beads are measured. The average of these AFM-measured bead charge densities is compared with the value obtained from conventional titration combined with electron microscopy. The two values are found to agree within 20%. While the comparison demonstrates similarity of the two charge measurements, hypotheses are put forward as to why the two techniques might be expected not to provide identical mean charge densities. The considerations used to build these hypotheses thus underscore the relevance of the method performed here if charge information is required on individual nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, United States
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Departments of NanoEngineering, Bioengineering, and Radiology, Moores Cancer Center, Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, California 92039, United States
| | - Steven J Eppell
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, United States
| | - Fredy R Zypman
- Department of Physics, Yeshiva University, Manhattan, New York 10033, United States
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Ren D, Nemati Z, Lee CH, Li J, Haddadi K, Wallace DC, Burke PJ. An ultra-high bandwidth nano-electronic interface to the interior of living cells with integrated fluorescence readout of metabolic activity. Sci Rep 2020; 10:10756. [PMID: 32612279 PMCID: PMC7329815 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-67408-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
We present the first ever broadband, calibrated electrical connection to the inside of a cell. The interior of a vital, living cell contains multiple dynamic and electrically active organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, and the endoplasmic reticulum. However, little is known about the detailed electrical activity inside the cell. Here we show an ultra-high bandwidth nano-electronic interface to the interior of living cells with integrated fluorescence readout of metabolic activity. On-chip/on-petri dish nanoscale capacitance calibration standards are used to quantify the electronic coupling from bench to cell from DC to 26 GHz (with cell images at 22 GHz). The interaction of static to high frequency electromagnetic fields with the cell constituents induce currents of free charges and local reorganization of linked charges. As such, this enables a direct, calibrated, quantitative, nanoscale electronic interface to the interior of living cells. The interface could have a variety of applications in interfacing life sciences to nano-electronics, including electronic assays of membrane potential dynamics, nano-electronic actuation of cellular activity, and tomographic, nano-radar imaging of the morphology of vital organelles in the cytoplasm, during all phases of the cell life cycle (from development to senescence), under a variety of physiological environments, and under a broad suite of pharmacological manipulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dandan Ren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Zahra Nemati
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Chia-Hung Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Jinfeng Li
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Kamel Haddadi
- CNRS, UMR 8520, Institute of Electronics, Microelectronics and Nanotechnology (IEMN), University of Lille, 59000, Lille, France
| | - Douglas C Wallace
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia and Department of Pediatrics, Division of Human Genetics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Peter J Burke
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA. .,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA. .,Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA. .,Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA. .,Chemical and Materials Physics Program, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA.
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Label-Free Biosensors for Laboratory-Based Diagnostics of Infections: Current Achievements and New Trends. BIOSENSORS-BASEL 2020; 10:bios10020011. [PMID: 32059538 PMCID: PMC7169461 DOI: 10.3390/bios10020011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2020] [Revised: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Infections pose a serious global public health problem and are a major cause of premature mortality worldwide. One of the most challenging objectives faced by modern medicine is timely and accurate laboratory-based diagnostics of infectious diseases. Being a key factor of timely initiation and success of treatment, it may potentially provide reduction in incidence of a disease, as well as prevent outbreak and spread of dangerous epidemics. The traditional methods of laboratory-based diagnostics of infectious diseases are quite time- and labor-consuming, require expensive equipment and qualified personnel, which restricts their use in case of limited resources. Over the past six decades, diagnostic technologies based on lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) have been and remain true alternatives to modern laboratory analyzers and have been successfully used to quickly detect molecular ligands in biosubstrates to diagnose many infectious diseases and septic conditions. These devices are considered as simplified formats of modern biosensors. Recent advances in the development of label-free biosensor technologies have made them promising diagnostic tools that combine rapid pathogen indication, simplicity, user-friendliness, operational efficiency, accuracy, and cost effectiveness, with a trend towards creation of portable platforms. These qualities exceed the generally accepted standards of microbiological and immunological diagnostics and open up a broad range of applications of these analytical systems in clinical practice immediately at the site of medical care (point-of-care concept, POC). A great variety of modern nanoarchitectonics of biosensors are based on the use of a broad range of analytical and constructive strategies and identification of various regulatory and functional molecular markers associated with infectious bacterial pathogens. Resolution of the existing biosensing issues will provide rapid development of diagnostic biotechnologies.
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Checa M, Millan-Solsona R, Blanco N, Torrents E, Fabregas R, Gomila G. Mapping the dielectric constant of a single bacterial cell at the nanoscale with scanning dielectric force volume microscopy. NANOSCALE 2019; 11:20809-20819. [PMID: 31657419 DOI: 10.1039/c9nr07659j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Mapping the dielectric constant at the nanoscale of samples showing a complex topography, such as non-planar nanocomposite materials or single cells, poses formidable challenges to existing nanoscale dielectric microscopy techniques. Here we overcome these limitations by introducing Scanning Dielectric Force Volume Microscopy. This scanning probe microscopy technique is based on the acquisition of electrostatic force approach curves at every point of a sample and its post-processing and quantification by using a computational model that incorporates the actual measured sample topography. The technique provides quantitative nanoscale images of the local dielectric constant of the sample with unparalleled accuracy, spatial resolution and statistical significance, irrespectively of the complexity of its topography. We illustrate the potential of the technique by presenting a nanoscale dielectric constant map of a single bacterial cell, including its small-scale appendages. The bacterial cell shows three characteristic equivalent dielectric constant values, namely, εr,bac1 = 2.6 ± 0.2, εr,bac2 = 3.6 ± 0.4 and εr,bac3 = 4.9 ± 0.5, which enable identifying different dielectric properties of the cell wall and of the cytoplasmatic region, as well as, the existence of variations in the dielectric constant along the bacterial cell wall itself. Scanning Dielectric Force Volume Microscopy is expected to have an important impact in Materials and Life Sciences where the mapping of the dielectric properties of samples showing complex nanoscale topographies is often needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martí Checa
- Nanoscale Bioelectrical Characterization, Institut de Bioenginyeria de Catalunya (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, c/Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, 08028, Barcelona, Spain. and Departament d'Enginyeria Electrònica i Biomèdica, Universitat de Barcelona, c/Martí i Franquès 1, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ruben Millan-Solsona
- Nanoscale Bioelectrical Characterization, Institut de Bioenginyeria de Catalunya (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, c/Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, 08028, Barcelona, Spain. and Departament d'Enginyeria Electrònica i Biomèdica, Universitat de Barcelona, c/Martí i Franquès 1, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Nuria Blanco
- Bacterial Infections: Antimicrobial Therapies, Institut de Bioenginyeria de Catalunya (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, c/Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, 08028, Barcelona
| | - Eduard Torrents
- Bacterial Infections: Antimicrobial Therapies, Institut de Bioenginyeria de Catalunya (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, c/Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, 08028, Barcelona
| | - Rene Fabregas
- Departament d'Enginyeria Electrònica i Biomèdica, Universitat de Barcelona, c/Martí i Franquès 1, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Gabriel Gomila
- Nanoscale Bioelectrical Characterization, Institut de Bioenginyeria de Catalunya (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, c/Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, 08028, Barcelona, Spain. and Departament d'Enginyeria Electrònica i Biomèdica, Universitat de Barcelona, c/Martí i Franquès 1, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
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12
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Cheong LZ, Zhao W, Song S, Shen C. Lab on a tip: Applications of functional atomic force microscopy for the study of electrical properties in biology. Acta Biomater 2019; 99:33-52. [PMID: 31425893 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2019.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Revised: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 08/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Electrical properties, such as charge propagation, dielectrics, surface potentials, conductivity, and piezoelectricity, play crucial roles in biomolecules, biomembranes, cells, tissues, and other biological samples. However, characterizing these electrical properties in delicate biosamples is challenging. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), the so called "Lab on a Tip" is a powerful and multifunctional approach to quantitatively study the electrical properties of biological samples at the nanometer level. Herein, the principles, theories, and achievements of various modes of AFM in this area have been reviewed and summarized. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Electrical properties such as dielectric and piezoelectric forces, charge propagation behaviors play important structural and functional roles in biosystems from the single molecule level, to cells and tissues. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has emerged as an ideal toolkit to study electrical property of biology. Herein, the basic principles of AFM are described. We then discuss the multiple modes of AFM to study the electrical properties of biological samples, including Electrostatic Force Microscopy (EFM), Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy (KPFM), Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy (CAFM), Piezoresponse Force Microscopy (PFM) and Scanning ElectroChemical Microscopy (SECM). Finally, the outlook, prospects, and challenges of the various AFM modes when studying the electrical behaviour of the samples are discussed.
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13
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Gramse G, Schönhals A, Kienberger F. Nanoscale dipole dynamics of protein membranes studied by broadband dielectric microscopy. NANOSCALE 2019; 11:4303-4309. [PMID: 30778459 PMCID: PMC6457197 DOI: 10.1039/c8nr05880f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We investigate the nearfield dipole mobility of protein membranes in a wide frequency range from 3 kHz to 10 GHz. The results of our nanoscale dielectric images and spectra of bacteriorhodopsin (bR) reveal Debye relaxations with time constants of τ ∼ 2 ns and τ ∼ 100 ns being characteristic of the dipole moments of the bR retinal and α-helices, respectively. However, the dipole mobility and therefore the protein biophysical function depend critically on the amount of surface water surrounding the protein, and the characteristic mobility in the secondary structure is only observed for humidity levels <30%. Our results have been achieved by adding the frequency as a second fundamental dimension to quantitative dielectric microscopy. The key elements for the success of this advanced technique are the employed heterodyne detection scheme, the broadband electrical signal source, a high frequency optimized cabling, development of calibration procedures and precise finite element modelling. Our study demonstrates the exciting possibilities of broadband dielectric microscopy for the investigation of dynamic processes in cell bioelectricity at the individual molecular level. Furthermore, the technique may shed light on local dynamic processes in related materials science applications like semiconductor research or nano-electronics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Gramse
- Johannes Kepler University, Biophysics Institute, Gruberstr. 40, 4020 Linz, Austria.
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14
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Coakley KJ, Berweger S, Wallis TM, Kabos P. Disentangling topographic contributions to near-field scanning microwave microscopy images. Ultramicroscopy 2018; 197:53-64. [PMID: 30504068 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2018.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Revised: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
We develop empirical models to predict the contribution of topographic variations in a sample to near-field scanning probe microwave microscopy (NSMM) images. In particular, we focus on |S11| images of a thin Perovskite photovoltaic material and a GaN nanowire. The difference between the measured NSMM image and this prediction is our estimate of the contribution of material property variations to the measured image. Prediction model parameters are determined from either a reference sample that is nearly free of material property variations or directly from the sample of interest. The parameters of the prediction model are determined by robust linear regression so as to minimize the effect of material property variations on results. For the case where the parameters are determined from the reference sample, the prediction is adjusted to account for instrument drift effects. Our statistical approach black is fully empirical black and thus complementary to current approaches based on physical models that are often overly simplistic.
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Affiliation(s)
- K J Coakley
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO 80305, USA.
| | - S Berweger
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO 80305, USA
| | - T M Wallis
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO 80305, USA
| | - P Kabos
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO 80305, USA
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15
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Lozano H, Fabregas R, Blanco-Cabra N, Millán-Solsona R, Torrents E, Fumagalli L, Gomila G. Dielectric constant of flagellin proteins measured by scanning dielectric microscopy. NANOSCALE 2018; 10:19188-19194. [PMID: 30302472 DOI: 10.1039/c8nr06190d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The dielectric constant of flagellin proteins in flagellar bacterial filaments ∼10-20 nm in diameter is measured using scanning dielectric microscopy. We obtained for two different bacterial species (Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1) similar relative dielectric constant values εSo = 4.3 ± 0.6 and εPa = 4.5 ± 0.7, respectively, despite their different structure and amino acid sequence. The present results show the applicability of scanning dielectric microscopy to nanoscale filamentous protein complexes and to general 3D macromolecular protein geometries, thus opening new avenues to study the relationship between the dielectric response and protein structure and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Lozano
- Nanoscale Bioelectrical Characterization, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), c/ Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, 08028, Barcelona, Spain.
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16
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Wu X, Hao Z, Wu D, Zheng L, Jiang Z, Ganesan V, Wang Y, Lai K. Quantitative measurements of nanoscale permittivity and conductivity using tuning-fork-based microwave impedance microscopy. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2018; 89:043704. [PMID: 29716308 DOI: 10.1063/1.5022997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We report quantitative measurements of nanoscale permittivity and conductivity using tuning-fork (TF) based microwave impedance microscopy (MIM). The system is operated under the driving amplitude modulation mode, which ensures satisfactory feedback stability on samples with rough surfaces. The demodulated MIM signals on a series of bulk dielectrics are in good agreement with results simulated by finite-element analysis. Using the TF-MIM, we have visualized the evolution of nanoscale conductance on back-gated MoS2 field effect transistors, and the results are consistent with the transport data. Our work suggests that quantitative analysis of mesoscopic electrical properties can be achieved by near-field microwave imaging with small distance modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Wu
- Department of Physics, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
| | - Zhenqi Hao
- State Key Laboratory of Low Dimensional Quantum Physics, Department of Physics, Tsinghua University, Bejing 100084, China
| | - Di Wu
- Department of Physics, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
| | - Lu Zheng
- Department of Physics, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
| | - Zhanzhi Jiang
- Department of Physics, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
| | - Vishal Ganesan
- Department of Physics, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
| | - Yayu Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Low Dimensional Quantum Physics, Department of Physics, Tsinghua University, Bejing 100084, China
| | - Keji Lai
- Department of Physics, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
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17
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Johnston SR, Ma EY, Shen ZX. Optically coupled methods for microwave impedance microscopy. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2018; 89:043703. [PMID: 29716321 DOI: 10.1063/1.5011391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Scanning Microwave Impedance Microscopy (MIM) measurement of photoconductivity with 50 nm resolution is demonstrated using a modulated optical source. The use of a modulated source allows for the measurement of photoconductivity in a single scan without a reference region on the sample, as well as removing most topographical artifacts and enhancing signal to noise as compared with unmodulated measurement. A broadband light source with a tunable monochrometer is then used to measure energy resolved photoconductivity with the same methodology. Finally, a pulsed optical source is used to measure local photo-carrier lifetimes via MIM, using the same 50 nm resolution tip.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott R Johnston
- Department of Applied Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Eric Yue Ma
- Department of Applied Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Zhi-Xun Shen
- Department of Applied Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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18
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Buchter A, Hoffmann J, Delvallée A, Brinciotti E, Hapiuk D, Licitra C, Louarn K, Arnoult A, Almuneau G, Piquemal F, Zeier M, Kienberger F. Scanning microwave microscopy applied to semiconducting GaAs structures. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2018; 89:023704. [PMID: 29495818 DOI: 10.1063/1.5015966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
A calibration algorithm based on one-port vector network analyzer (VNA) calibration for scanning microwave microscopes (SMMs) is presented and used to extract quantitative carrier densities from a semiconducting n-doped GaAs multilayer sample. This robust and versatile algorithm is instrument and frequency independent, as we demonstrate by analyzing experimental data from two different, cantilever- and tuning fork-based, microscope setups operating in a wide frequency range up to 27.5 GHz. To benchmark the SMM results, comparison with secondary ion mass spectrometry is undertaken. Furthermore, we show SMM data on a GaAs p-n junction distinguishing p- and n-doped layers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arne Buchter
- Federal Institute of Metrology METAS, Lindenweg 50, 3003 Bern-Wabern, Switzerland
| | - Johannes Hoffmann
- Federal Institute of Metrology METAS, Lindenweg 50, 3003 Bern-Wabern, Switzerland
| | | | - Enrico Brinciotti
- Keysight Laboratories, Keysight Technologies, Inc., Gruberstrasse 40, 4020 Linz, Austria
| | | | | | - Kevin Louarn
- LNE, 29 Avenue Roger Hennequin, F-78197 Trappes, France
| | | | | | | | - Markus Zeier
- Federal Institute of Metrology METAS, Lindenweg 50, 3003 Bern-Wabern, Switzerland
| | - Ferry Kienberger
- Keysight Laboratories, Keysight Technologies, Inc., Gruberstrasse 40, 4020 Linz, Austria
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19
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Biagi MC, Badino G, Fabregas R, Gramse G, Fumagalli L, Gomila G. Direct mapping of the electric permittivity of heterogeneous non-planar thin films at gigahertz frequencies by scanning microwave microscopy. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 19:3884-3893. [PMID: 28106185 DOI: 10.1039/c6cp08215g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We obtained maps of electric permittivity at ∼19 GHz frequencies on non-planar thin film heterogeneous samples by means of combined atomic force-scanning microwave microscopy (AFM-SMM). We show that the electric permittivity maps can be obtained directly from the capacitance images acquired in contact mode, after removing the topographic cross-talk effects. This result demonstrates the possibility of identifying the electric permittivity of different materials in a thin film sample irrespectively of their thickness by just direct imaging and processing. We show, in addition, that quantitative maps of the electric permittivity can be obtained with no need for any theoretical calculation or complex quantification procedures when the electric permittivity of one of the materials is known. To achieve these results the use of contact mode imaging is a key factor. For non-contact imaging modes the effects of local sample thickness and of the imaging distance make the interpretation of the capacitance images in terms of the electric permittivity properties of the materials much more complex. The present results represent a substantial contribution to the field of nanoscale microwave dielectric characterization of thin film materials with important implications for the characterization of novel 3D electronic devices and 3D nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Chiara Biagi
- Institut de Bioenginyeria de Catalunya (IBEC), c/Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, 08028, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Giorgio Badino
- Keysight Technologies Austria GmbH, Keysight Lab, Gruberst. 40, 4020-Linz, Austria
| | - Rene Fabregas
- Institut de Bioenginyeria de Catalunya (IBEC), c/Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, 08028, Barcelona, Spain. and Departament d'Enginyeries: Electrònica, Universitat de Barcelona, C/Martí i Franqués 1, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Georg Gramse
- Johannes Kepler University Linz, Institute for Biophysics, Gruberst. 40, 4020-Linz, Austria
| | - Laura Fumagalli
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Gabriel Gomila
- Institut de Bioenginyeria de Catalunya (IBEC), c/Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, 08028, Barcelona, Spain. and Departament d'Enginyeries: Electrònica, Universitat de Barcelona, C/Martí i Franqués 1, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
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20
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Microwave measurement of giant unilamellar vesicles in aqueous solution. Sci Rep 2018; 8:497. [PMID: 29323157 PMCID: PMC5764977 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-18806-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
A microwave technique is demonstrated to measure floating giant unilamellar vesicle (GUV) membranes in a 25 μm wide and 18.8 μm high microfluidic channel. The measurement is conducted at 2.7 and 7.9 GHz, at which a split-ring resonator (SRR) operates at odd modes. A 500 nm wide and 100 μm long SRR split gap is used to scan GUVs that are slightly larger than 25 μm in diameter. The smaller fluidic channel induces flattened GUV membrane sections, which make close contact with the SRR gap surface. The used GUVs are synthesized with POPC (16:0–18:1 PC 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine), SM (16:0 Egg Sphingomyelin) and cholesterol at different molecular compositions. It is shown that SM and POPC bilayers have different dielectric permittivity values, which also change with measurement frequencies. The obtained membrane permittivity values, e.g. 73.64-j6.13 for POPC at 2.7 GHz, are more than 10 times larger than previously reported results. The discrepancy is likely due to the measurement of dielectric polarization parallel with, other than perpendicular to, the membrane surface. POPC and SM-rich GUV surface sections are also clearly identified. Further work is needed to verify the obtained large permittivity values and enable accurate analysis of membrane composition.
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21
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Caraballo F, Kumano M, Saeki A. Spatial Inhomogeneity of Methylammonium Lead-Mixed Halide Perovskite Examined by Space- and Time-Resolved Microwave Conductivity. ACS OMEGA 2017; 2:8020-8026. [PMID: 31457352 PMCID: PMC6645387 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.7b01471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Reducing the spatial inhomogeneity of solution-processed, multicrystalline methylammonium lead iodide (MAPbI3) perovskite is of great importance for improving its power conversion efficiency, suppressing point-to-point deviations, and delaying degradation during operation. Various techniques, such as conducting-mode atomic force microscopy and photoluminescence mapping, have been applied for this intriguing class of materials, revealing nonuniform electronic properties on the nanometer-to-micrometer scale. Here, we designed a new space- and time-resolved microwave conductivity system that enables mapping of the transient photoconductivity with resolution greater than ∼45 μm. We examined the effects of the precursor concentration of MAPbI3 and the mixing of halides (I- and Br-) on the charge carrier dynamics, crystal size, and inhomogeneity of the films. The optoelectronic inhomogeneity of MAPbI3 and MAPb(I1-x Br x )3 on the sub-millimeter and millimeter scales shows a general correlation with their crystallite sizes, whereas the precursor concentration and halide mixing affect the inhomogeneity in a different way, providing a basis for uniform processing of a multicrystalline perovskite film.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Caraballo
- Department
of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1
Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Masataka Kumano
- Department
of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1
Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Akinori Saeki
- Department
of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1
Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
- Precursory
Research for Embryonic Science and Technology (PRESTO), Japan Science and Technology Agency, 4-1-8 Honcho, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan
- E-mail:
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22
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Wu BY, Sheng XQ, Fabregas R, Hao Y. Full-wave modeling of broadband near field scanning microwave microscopy. Sci Rep 2017; 7:16064. [PMID: 29167422 PMCID: PMC5700110 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-13937-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
A three-dimensional finite element numerical modeling for the scanning microwave microscopy (SMM) setup is applied to study the full-wave quantification of the local material properties of samples. The modeling takes into account the radiation and scattering losses of the nano-sized probe neglected in previous models based on low-frequency assumptions. The scanning techniques of approach curves and constant height are implemented. In addition, we conclude that the SMM has the potential for use as a broadband dielectric spectroscopy operating at higher frequencies up to THz. The results demonstrate the accuracy of previous models. We draw conclusions in light of the experimental results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bi-Yi Wu
- School of electronic engineering and computer science, Queen Mary University of London, London, E14NS, UK.,School of Information and Electronics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Xin-Qing Sheng
- School of Information and Electronics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Rene Fabregas
- Institut de Bioenginyeria de Catalunya (IBEC), c/Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, 08028, Barcelona, Spain.,Departament d'Enginyeries, Electrónica, Universitat de Barcelona, C/Martí i Franqués 1, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Yang Hao
- School of electronic engineering and computer science, Queen Mary University of London, London, E14NS, UK.
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23
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Soliman M, Ding Y, Tetard L. Nanoscale subsurface imaging. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2017; 29:173001. [PMID: 28140334 DOI: 10.1088/1361-648x/aa5b4a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The ability to probe structures and functional properties of complex systems at the nanoscale, both at their surface and in their volume, has drawn substantial attention in recent years. Besides detecting heterogeneities, cracks and defects below the surface, more advanced explorations of chemical or electrical properties are of great interest. In this article, we review some approaches developed to explore heterogeneities below the surface, including recent progress in the different aspects of metrology in optics, electron microscopy, and scanning probe microscopy. We discuss the principle and mechanisms of image formation associated with each technique, including data acquisition, data analysis and modeling for nanoscale structural and functional imaging. We highlight the advances based on atomic force microscopy (AFM). Our discussion first introduces methods providing structural information of the buried structures, such as position in the volume and geometry. Next we present how functional properties including conductivity, capacitance, and composition can be extracted from the modalities available to date and how they could eventually enable tomography reconstructions of systems such as overlay structures in transistors or living systems. Finally we propose a perspective regarding the outstanding challenges and needs to push the field forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Soliman
- NanoScience Technology Center, 12424 Research Parkway, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, 32826, United States of America. Materials Science and Engineering, 12760 Pegasus Drive, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, 32816, United States of America
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24
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Berweger S, MacDonald GA, Yang M, Coakley KJ, Berry JJ, Zhu K, DelRio FW, Wallis TM, Kabos P. Electronic and Morphological Inhomogeneities in Pristine and Deteriorated Perovskite Photovoltaic Films. NANO LETTERS 2017; 17:1796-1801. [PMID: 28151679 PMCID: PMC5518572 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b05119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
We perform scanning microwave microscopy (SMM) to study the spatially varying electronic properties and related morphology of pristine and degraded methylammonium lead-halide (MAPI) perovskite films fabricated under different ambient humidity. We find that higher processing humidity leads to the emergence of increased conductivity at the grain boundaries but also correlates with the appearance of resistive grains that contain PbI2. Deteriorated films show larger and increasingly insulating grain boundaries as well as spatially localized regions of reduced conductivity within grains. These results suggest that while humidity during film fabrication primarily benefits device properties due to the passivation of traps at the grain boundaries and self-doping, it also results in the emergence of PbI2-containing grains. We further establish that MAPI film deterioration under ambient conditions proceeds via the spatially localized breakdown of film conductivity, both at grain boundaries and within grains, due to local variations in susceptibility to deterioration. These results confirm that PbI2 has both beneficial and adverse effects on device performance and provide new means for device optimization by revealing spatial variations in sample conductivity as well as morphological differences in resistance to sample deterioration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Berweger
- National Institute of Standards and Technology , Boulder, Colorado 80305, United States
| | - Gordon A MacDonald
- National Institute of Standards and Technology , Boulder, Colorado 80305, United States
| | - Mengjin Yang
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory , Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Kevin J Coakley
- National Institute of Standards and Technology , Boulder, Colorado 80305, United States
| | - Joseph J Berry
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory , Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Kai Zhu
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory , Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Frank W DelRio
- National Institute of Standards and Technology , Boulder, Colorado 80305, United States
| | - Thomas M Wallis
- National Institute of Standards and Technology , Boulder, Colorado 80305, United States
| | - Pavel Kabos
- National Institute of Standards and Technology , Boulder, Colorado 80305, United States
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25
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Fu W, Zhang W. Hybrid AFM for Nanoscale Physicochemical Characterization: Recent Development and Emerging Applications. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2017; 13:1603525. [PMID: 28121376 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201603525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2016] [Revised: 12/17/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has evolved to be one of the most powerful tools for the characterization of material surfaces especially at the nanoscale. Recent development of AFM has incorporated a suite of analytical techniques including surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) technique and infrared (IR) spectroscopy to further reveal chemical composition and map the chemical distribution. This incorporation not only elevates the functionality of AFM but also increases the resolution limitation of conventional IR and Raman spectroscopy. Despite the rapid development of such hybrid AFM techniques, many unique features, principles, applications, potential pitfalls or artifacts are not well known to the community. This review systematically summarizes the recent relevant literature on hybrid AFM principles and applications. It focuses specially on AFM-IR and AFM-Raman techniques. Various applications in different research fields are critically reviewed and discussed, highlighting the potentials of these hybrid AFM techniques. Here, the major drawbacks and limitations of these two hybrid AFM techniques are presented. The intentions of this article are to shed new light on the future research and achieve improvements in stability and reliability of the measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanyi Fu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, 07102, USA
| | - Wen Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, 07102, USA
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26
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Van Der Hofstadt M, Fabregas R, Millan-Solsona R, Juarez A, Fumagalli L, Gomila G. Internal Hydration Properties of Single Bacterial Endospores Probed by Electrostatic Force Microscopy. ACS NANO 2016; 10:11327-11336. [PMID: 28024372 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.6b06578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
We show that the internal hydration properties of single Bacillus cereus endospores in air under different relative humidity (RH) conditions can be determined through the measurement of its electric permittivity by means of quantitative electrostatic force microscopy (EFM). We show that an increase in the RH from 0% to 80% induces a large increase in the equivalent homogeneous relative electric permittivity of the bacterial endospores, from ∼4 up to ∼17, accompanied only by a small increase in the endospore height, of just a few nanometers. These results correlate the increase of the moisture content of the endospore with the corresponding increase of environmental RH. Three-dimensional finite element numerical calculations, which include the internal structure of the endospores, indicate that the moisture is mainly accumulated in the external layers of the endospore, hence preserving the core of the endospore at low hydration levels. This mechanism is different from what we observe for vegetative bacterial cells of the same species, in which the cell wall at high humid atmospheric conditions is not able to preserve the cytoplasmic region at low hydration levels. These results show the potential of quantitative EFM under environmental humidity control to study the hygroscopic properties of small-scale biological (and nonbiological) entities and to determine its internal hydration state. A better understanding of nanohygroscopic properties can be of relevance in the study of essential biological processes and in the design of bionanotechnological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Van Der Hofstadt
- Institut de Bioenginyeria de Catalunya (IBEC) , c/Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, Barcelona 08028, Spain
- Departament d'Enginyeries: Electrònica, Universitat de Barcelona , C/Martí i Franqués 1, Barcelona 08028, Spain
| | - Rene Fabregas
- Institut de Bioenginyeria de Catalunya (IBEC) , c/Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, Barcelona 08028, Spain
- Departament d'Enginyeries: Electrònica, Universitat de Barcelona , C/Martí i Franqués 1, Barcelona 08028, Spain
| | - Ruben Millan-Solsona
- Institut de Bioenginyeria de Catalunya (IBEC) , c/Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, Barcelona 08028, Spain
| | - Antonio Juarez
- Institut de Bioenginyeria de Catalunya (IBEC) , c/Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, Barcelona 08028, Spain
- Departament de Microbiologia, Universitat de Barcelona , Av. Diagonal 643, Barcelona 08028, Spain
| | - Laura Fumagalli
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester , Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Gabriel Gomila
- Institut de Bioenginyeria de Catalunya (IBEC) , c/Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, Barcelona 08028, Spain
- Departament d'Enginyeries: Electrònica, Universitat de Barcelona , C/Martí i Franqués 1, Barcelona 08028, Spain
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27
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Van Der Hofstadt M, Fabregas R, Biagi MC, Fumagalli L, Gomila G. Nanoscale dielectric microscopy of non-planar samples by lift-mode electrostatic force microscopy. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2016; 27:405706. [PMID: 27597315 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/27/40/405706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Lift-mode electrostatic force microscopy (EFM) is one of the most convenient imaging modes to study the local dielectric properties of non-planar samples. Here we present the quantitative analysis of this imaging mode. We introduce a method to quantify and subtract the topographic crosstalk from the lift-mode EFM images, and a 3D numerical approach that allows for extracting the local dielectric constant with nanoscale spatial resolution free from topographic artifacts. We demonstrate this procedure by measuring the dielectric properties of micropatterned SiO2 pillars and of single bacteria cells, thus illustrating the wide applicability of our approach from materials science to biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Van Der Hofstadt
- Institut de Bioenginyeria de Catalunya (IBEC), C/Baldiri i Reixac 11-15, E-08028, Barcelona, Spain. Departament d'Enginyeries: Electrònica, Universitat de Barcelona, C/Martí i Franqués 1, E-08028, Barcelona, Spain
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28
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Lucibello A, Sardi GM, Capoccia G, Proietti E, Marcelli R, Kasper M, Gramse G, Kienberger F. A broadband toolbox for scanning microwave microscopy transmission measurements. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2016; 87:053701. [PMID: 27250429 DOI: 10.1063/1.4948291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we present in detail the design, both electromagnetic and mechanical, the fabrication, and the test of the first prototype of a Scanning Microwave Microscope (SMM) suitable for a two-port transmission measurement, recording, and processing the high frequency transmission scattering parameter S21 passing through the investigated sample. The S21 toolbox is composed by a microwave emitter, placed below the sample, which excites an electromagnetic wave passing through the sample under test, and is collected by the cantilever used as the detector, electrically matched for high frequency measurements. This prototype enhances the actual capability of the instrument for a sub-surface imaging at the nanoscale. Moreover, it allows the study of the electromagnetic properties of the material under test obtained through the measurement of the reflection (S11) and transmission (S21) parameters at the same time. The SMM operates between 1 GHz and 20 GHz, current limit for the microwave matching of the cantilever, and the high frequency signal is recorded by means of a two-port Vector Network Analyzer, using both contact and no-contact modes of operation, the latter, especially minded for a fully nondestructive and topography-free characterization. This tool is an upgrade of the already established setup for the reflection mode S11 measurement. Actually, the proposed setup is able to give richer information in terms of scattering parameters, including amplitude and phase measurements, by means of the two-port arrangement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Lucibello
- Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems, National Research Council, Via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133 Roma, Italy
| | - Giovanni Maria Sardi
- Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems, National Research Council, Via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133 Roma, Italy
| | - Giovanni Capoccia
- Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems, National Research Council, Via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133 Roma, Italy
| | - Emanuela Proietti
- Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems, National Research Council, Via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133 Roma, Italy
| | - Romolo Marcelli
- Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems, National Research Council, Via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133 Roma, Italy
| | - Manuel Kasper
- Institute of Biophysics, Johannes Kepler University, Gruberstrasse 40, A-4020 Linz, Austria
| | - Georg Gramse
- Institute of Biophysics, Johannes Kepler University, Gruberstrasse 40, A-4020 Linz, Austria
| | - Ferry Kienberger
- Keysight Technologies Austria GmbH, Gruberstrasse 40, A-4020 Linz, Austria
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29
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Tselev A, Velmurugan J, Ievlev AV, Kalinin SV, Kolmakov A. Seeing through Walls at the Nanoscale: Microwave Microscopy of Enclosed Objects and Processes in Liquids. ACS NANO 2016; 10:3562-3570. [PMID: 26866377 PMCID: PMC5424529 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.5b07919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Noninvasive in situ nanoscale imaging in liquid environments is a current imperative in the analysis of delicate biomedical objects and electrochemical processes at reactive liquid-solid interfaces. Microwaves of a few gigahertz frequencies offer photons with energies of ≈10 μeV, which can affect neither electronic states nor chemical bonds in condensed matter. Here, we describe an implementation of scanning near-field microwave microscopy for imaging in liquids using ultrathin molecular impermeable membranes separating scanning probes from samples enclosed in environmental cells. We imaged a model electroplating reaction as well as individual live cells. Through a side-by-side comparison of the microwave imaging with scanning electron microscopy, we demonstrate the advantage of microwaves for artifact-free imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Tselev
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Jeyavel Velmurugan
- Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899
- Maryland NanoCenter, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
| | - Anton V. Ievlev
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Sergei V. Kalinin
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Andrei Kolmakov
- Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899
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30
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Berweger S, Blanchard PT, Brubaker MD, Coakley KJ, Sanford NA, Wallis TM, Bertness KA, Kabos P. Near-Field Control and Imaging of Free Charge Carrier Variations in GaN Nanowires. APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS 2016; 108:10.1063/1.4942107. [PMID: 38486617 PMCID: PMC10938853 DOI: 10.1063/1.4942107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
Despite their uniform crystallinity, the shape and faceting of semiconducting nanowires (NWs) can give rise to variations in structure and associated electronic properties. Here we develop a hybrid scanning probe-based methodology to investigate local variations in electronic structure across individual n-doped GaN NWs integrated into a transistor device. We perform scanning microwave microscopy (SMM), which we combine with scanning gate microscopy (SGM) to determine the free-carrier SMM signal contribution and image local charge carrier density variations. In particular, we find significant variations in free carriers across NWs, with a higher carrier density at the wire facets. By increasing the local carrier density through tip-gating, we find that the tip injects current into the NW with strongly localized current when positioned over the wire vertices. These results suggest that the strong variations in electronic properties observed within NWs have significant implications for device design and may lead to new paths to optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Berweger
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO, 80305
| | - Paul T Blanchard
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO, 80305
| | - Matt D Brubaker
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO, 80305
| | - Kevin J Coakley
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO, 80305
| | - Norman A Sanford
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO, 80305
| | - Thomas M Wallis
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO, 80305
| | - Kris A Bertness
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO, 80305
| | - Pavel Kabos
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO, 80305
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