Highly Concentrated Emulsions Containing High Loads of Pterostilbene

Characterization and In Vitro Prebiotic Activity of Pterostilbene/β-Cyclodextrin Inclusion Complexes

Pterostilbene (PTS) has multiple benefits, but poor water solubility and bioavailability limit its application. PTS/β-CD inclusion complexes were synthesized through the phase solubility method to enhance their water solubility. The inclusion complexes were characterized through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, nuclear magnetic resonance, and molecular docking techniques. The results demonstrated that PTS and β-CD successfully created inclusion complexes with a host-guest ratio of 1:1 and a stability constant of 166.7 M-1. To further investigate its prebiotic function, simulated digestion experiments revealed that β-CD exhibited resistance to digestion, allowing it to reach the colon intact. During gastrointestinal digestion, PTS in the PTS/β-CD inclusion complexes was gradually released. Following digestion, the in vitro fermentation of healthy human feces further confirmed the probiotic properties. Compared to the β-CD and fructooligosaccharide (FOS) groups, the PTS/β-CD group significantly increased the production of acetic acid, butyric acid, and lactic acid, respectively. Additionally, beneficial bacteria, such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus, proliferated in the PTS/β-CD group, while the relative abundance of potential pathogenic bacteria, such as Lactococcus, Streptococcus, and Klebsiella, was significantly reduced. Compared to the blank group, propionic acid and butyric acid concentrations in the β-CD group were significantly higher. The abundance of Lactobacillus and other key bacterial species in the β-CD group increased, while the relative abundance of Klebsiella and other pathogens decreased significantly. In conclusion, PTS/β-CD inclusion complexes altered the composition of intestinal flora, promoting the proliferation of beneficial bacteria and inhibiting the growth of harmful bacteria, thereby demonstrating dual probiotic functionality.

Pterostilbene: a potential therapeutic agent for fibrotic diseases

Fibrosis is a prevailing pathology in chronic diseases and accounts for 45% of deaths in developed countries. This condition is primarily identified by the transformation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts and the overproduction of extracellular matrix (ECM) by myofibroblasts. Pterostilbene (PTS) is a natural analogue of resveratrol and is most commonly found in blueberries. Research has shown that PTS exerts a wide range of pharmacological effects, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects. As a result, PTS has the potential to prevent and cure numerous diseases. Emerging evidence has indicated that PTS can alleviate myocardial fibrosis, renal fibrosis, pulmonary fibrosis, hepatic fibrosis, and colon fibrosis via the inhibition of inflammation, oxidative stress, and fibrogenesis effects in vivo and in vitro, and the potential mechanisms are linked to various pathways, including transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)/small mother against decapentaplegic proteins (Smads) signalling, the reactive oxygen species (ROS)-driven Pitx2c/mir-15b pathway, nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signalling, Kelch-like epichlorohydrin-associated protein-1 (Keap-1)/NF-E2-related factor-2 (Nrf2) cascade, the NLR family pyridine structure domain 3 (NLRP3) pathway, the Janus kinase-2 (JAK2)/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) pathway, and the Src/STAT3 pathway. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the antifibrotic effects of PTS both in vivo and in vitro and the pharmacological mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, and toxicology of PTS and provide insights into and strategies for exploring promising agents for the treatment of fibrosis.