Polyfunctional Tetraaza-Macrocyclic Ligands: Zn(II), Cu(II) Binding and Formation of Hybrid Materials with Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes

Review on Isatin- A Remarkable Scaffold for Designing Potential Therapeutic Complexes and Its Macrocyclic Complexes with Transition Metals

Role of synthetic coordination chemistry in pharmaceutical science is expeditiously increased due to its sundry relevances in this field. The present review endows the synthesized macrocyclic complexes of transition metal ions containing isatin and its derivatives as ligand precursors, their characterization and their copious pharmaceutical applications. Isatin (1H-Indole-2,3-dione) is a protean compound (presence of lactam and keto moiety permits to change its molecular framework) that can be obtained from marine animals, plants, and is also found in mammalian tissues and in human fluids as a metabolite of amino acids. It can be used for the synthesis of miscellaneous organic and inorganic complexes and for designing of drugs since it has remarkable utility in pharmaceutical industry due to its wide range of biological and pharmacological activities, for instance anti-microbial, anti-HIV, anti-tubercular, anti-cancer, anti-viral, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic, analgesic activity, anti-Parkinson's disease, anti-convulsant etc. This review provides extensive information about the latest methods for the synthesis of isatin or its substituted derivatives based macrocyclic complexes of transition metals and their plentiful applications in medicinal chemistry.

Graphical Abstract

Noncovalent Assembly and Catalytic Activity of Hybrid Materials Based on Pd Complexes Adsorbed on Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene, and Graphene Nanoplatelets

Green catalysts with excellent performance in Cu-free Sonogashira coupling reactions can be prepared by the supramolecular decoration of graphene surfaces with Pd(II) complexes. Here we report the synthesis, characterization, and catalytic properties of new catalysts obtained by the surface decoration of multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), graphene (G), and graphene nanoplatelets (GNPTs) with Pd(II) complexes of tetraaza-macrocyclic ligands bearing one or two anchor functionalities. The decoration of these carbon surfaces takes place under environmentally friendly conditions (water, room temperature, aerobic) in two steps: (i) π–π stacking attachment of the ligand via electron-poor anchor group 6-amino-3,4-dihydro-3-methyl-5-nitroso-4-oxo-pyrimidine and (ii) Pd(II) coordination from PdCl₄^2–. Ligands are more efficiently adsorbed on the flat surfaces of G and GNPTs than on the curved surfaces of MWCNTs. All catalysts work very efficiently under mild conditions (50 °C, aerobic, 7 h), giving a similar high yield (90% or greater) in the coupling of iodobenzene with phenylacetylene to form diphenylacetylene in one catalytic cycle, but catalysts based on G and GNPTs (especially on GNPTs) provide greater catalytic efficiency in reuse (four cycles). The study also revealed that the active centers of the ligand-Pd type decorating the support surfaces are much more efficient than the Pd(0) and PdCl₄^2– centers sharing the same surfaces. All of the results allow a better understanding of the structural factors to be controlled in order to obtain an optimal efficiency from similar catalysts based on graphene supports.

Green catalysts with high efficiency in the Cu-free Sonogashira C−C coupling reactions can be prepared by the supramolecular functionalization of carbon materials.

Metal Coordination Properties of a Chromophoric Desferrioxamine (DFO) Derivative: Insight on the Coordination Stoichiometry and Thermodynamic Stability of Zr4+ Complexes

Desferrioxamine (DFO) is the current "gold standard" chelator for ⁸⁹Zr⁴⁺, which is used to label monoclonal antibodies for applications in immunopositron emission tomography. Recently, controversial data have been reported regarding the speciation and the stability of the complexes formed by DFO with Zr⁴⁺ in solution. To shed some light on this point, we studied the coordination properties in solution ofa chromophoric DFO derivative bearing a substituted pyrimidine residue (DFO-Pm) toward several metal ions (Zr⁴⁺, Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺). Potentiometric titrations showed that DFO-Pm and pristine DFO form complexes with very similar stoichiometry and stability. DFO-Pm, which can consequently be taken as a model system for DFO, provides a photochemical response to metal coordination that can be used to further define the complexes formed. In the critical case of Zr⁴⁺, spectrophotometric measurements allowed the verification of the formation of 1:1 and 2:3 complexes that, together with 2:2 complexes form the coordination model that was obtained through the use of our potentiometric measurements. Additionally, mass spectrometry measurements verified the formation of 1:1 and 2:3 complexes and showed that 1:2 species can be easily generated through the fragmentation of the 2:3 species. In conclusion, the results obtained with DFO-Pm validate the complexation model of Zr⁴⁺/DFO composed of 1:1, 2:2, and 2:3 metal-to-ligand complexes. Convergences and conflicts with other works are addressed.

Assembly of Polyiodide Networks with Cu(II) Complexes of Pyridinol-Based Tetraaza Macrocycles

Polyiodide networks are currently of great practical interest for the preparation of new electronic materials. The participation of metals in the formation of these networks is believed to improve their mechanical performance and thermal stability. Here we report the results on the construction of polyiodide networks obtained using Cu(II) complexes of a series of pyridinol-based tetraazacyclophanes as countercations. The assembly of these crystalline polyiodides takes place from aqueous solutions on the basis of similar structural elements, the [CuL]²⁺ and [Cu(H_–1L)]⁺ (L = L2, L2-Me, L2-Me₃) complex cations, so that the peculiarities induced by the increase of N-methylation of ligands, the structural variable of ligands, can be highlighted. First, solution equilibria involving ligands and complexes were analyzed (potentiometry, NMR, UV–vis, ITC). Then, the appropriate conditions could be selected to prepare polyiodides based on the above complex cations. Single-crystal XRD analysis showed that the coordination of pyridinol units to two metal ions is a prime feature of these ligands, leading to polymeric coordination chains of general formula {[Cu(H_–1L)]}_nⁿ⁺ (L = L2-Me, L2-Me₃). In the presence of the I^–/I₂ couple, the polymerization tendency stops with the formation of [(CuL)(CuH_–1L)]³⁺ (L = L2-Me, L2-Me₃) dimers which are surrounded by polyiodide networks. Moreover, coordination of the pyridinol group to two metal ions transforms the surface charge of the ring from negative to markedly positive, generating a suitable environment for the assembly of polyiodide anions, while N-methylation shifts the directional control of the assembly from H-bonds to I···I interactions. In fact, an extended concatenation of iodine atoms occurs around the complex dimeric cations, the supramolecular I···I interactions become shorter and shorter, fading into stronger forces dominated by the orbital overlap, which is promising for effective electronic materials.

Polyiodides with high iodine density are generated by Cu(II) complexes of pyridinol-based tetraazacyclophanes. Direct coordination of iodine atoms to Cu(II), anion−π interactions with electron-poor aromatic surfaces, and shift of the directional control of assembly from H-bonds to I···I interactions, governed by N-methylation, are the main elements leading to enhanced iodine chaining and strengthening of I···I contacts.

On the Oxygen Reduction Reaction Mechanism Catalyzed by Pd Complexes on 2D Carbon. A Theoretical Study

Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR) is the bottle-neck strategic reaction ruling the fuel cell efficiency process. The slow kinetics of the reaction require highly effective electrocatalysts for proper boosting. In this field, composite catalysts formed by carbon nanotubes functionalized with palladium(II) complexes showed surprising catalytic activity comparable to those of a commercial Pt electrode, but the catalytic mechanisms of these materials still remain open to discussion. In this paper, we propose the combination of experimental and theoretical results to unfold the elementary reaction steps underlying the ORR catalysis.

Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Supported Pd(II) Complexes: A Supramolecular Approach towards Single-Ion Oxygen Reduction Reaction Catalysts

Lowering the platinum group metal content of oxygen reduction reaction catalysts is among the most prevalent research focuses in the field. This target is herein approached through supported Pd(II) complexes. Starting from a commercial macrocycle, a new ligand is synthesized, its solution behavior and binding properties briefly explored (potentiometry, UV-Vis) and then used to prepare a new catalyst. A supramolecular approach is used in order to obtain homogeneous decoration of carbon nanotubes surfaces, fostering novel possibilities to access single-ion active sites. The novel catalyst is characterized through X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and scanning transmission electron microscopy and its promising oxygen reduction reaction performance is evaluated via rotating ring-disk electrode and rotating disk electrode in half-cell studies.

Non-covalent Functionalization of Graphene to Tune Its Band Gap and Stabilize Metal Nanoparticles on Its Surface

Controlling graphene conductivity is crucial for its potential applications. With this focus, this paper shows the effect of the non-covalent bonding of a pyrimidine derivative (HIS) on the electronic properties of graphene (G). Several G-HIS hybrids are prepared through mild treatments keeping unaltered the structures of both G and HIS. The attachment of HIS to G occurs by π-π stacking of the HIS-aromatic residue with the G surface. This partially blocks the p z electrons of G, giving rise to the splitting of both the valence and conduction bands. Moreover, the width of the splitting is directly related to the HIS content. This fact allows the fine-tuning of the band gap of G-HIS hybrids. Furthermore, HIS keeps its metal-complexing ability in the G-HIS hybrids. Taking advantage of this, a G-HIS-Cu(0) composite was prepared by H2 plasma reduction of a precursor of the G-HIS-Cu(II) type. G-HIS-Cu(0) contains Cu(0) clusters stabilized on the G surface due to interactions with the COO- functions of HIS. In an analogous hybrid, G-HIS-Au(0), the Au(0) NPs are also stabilized by COO- functions. This material, consisting of the coupling of Au(0) NPs and G-HIS, photocatalyzed water reduction under visible light radiation producing 12.5 μmol·g-1·h-1of hydrogen.

Stabilisation of Exotic Tribromide (Br3-) Anions via Supramolecular Interaction with A Tosylated Macrocyclic Pyridinophane. A Serendipitous Case

Tetraaza-macrocyclic pyridinophane L-Ts, decorated with a p-toluenesulfonyl (tosyl; Ts) group, appear to be a useful tool to provide evidence on how the interplay of various supramolecular forces can help stabilise exotic anionic species such as tribromide (Br₃⁻) anions. Indeed, crystals of (H₂L-Ts)(Br₃)_1.5(NO₃)_0.5 unexpectedly grew from an acidic (HNO₃) aqueous solution of L-Ts in the presence of Br⁻ anions. The crystal structure of this compound was determined by single crystal XRD analysis. Hydrogen bonds, salt-bridges, anion-π, π-π stacking, and van der Waals interactions contribute to stabilising the crystal lattice. The observation of two independent Br₃⁻ anions stuck over the π-electron densities of pyridine and tosyl ligand groups, one of them being sandwiched between two pyridine rings, corroborates the significance of anion-π interactions for N-containing heterocycles. We show herein the possibility of detecting anion-π contacts from fingerprint plots generated by Hirshfeld surface analysis, demonstrating the effective usage of this structural investigation technique to further dissect individual contributions of stabilising supramolecular forces.

Sensing Zn2+ in Aqueous Solution with a Fluorescent Scorpiand Macrocyclic Ligand Decorated with an Anthracene Bearing Tail

Synthesis of the new scorpiand ligand L composed of a [9]aneN3 macrocyclic ring bearing a CH2CH2NHCH2-anthracene tail is reported. L forms both cation (Zn2+) and anion (phosphate, benzoate) complexes. In addition, the zinc complexes of L bind these anions. The equilibrium constants for ligand protonation and complex formation were determined in 0.1 M NaCl aqueous solution at 298.1 ± 0.1 K by means of potentiometric (pH-metric) titrations. pH Controlled coordination/detachment of the ligand tail to Zn2+ switch on and off the fluorescence emission from the anthracene fluorophore. Accordingly, L is able to sense Zn2+ in the pH range 6-10 down to nM concentrations of the metal ion. L can efficiently sense Zn2+ even in the presence of large excess of coordinating anions, such as cyanide, sulphide, phosphate and benzoate, despite their ability to bind the metal ion.

Stabilization of polyiodide networks with Cu(ii) complexes of small methylated polyazacyclophanes: shifting directional control from H-bonds to I⋯I interactions

Modulation of hydrogen bonds and iodine–iodine interactions, both covalent and supramolecular, unlocks novel possibilities for the construction of transition metal-polyiodide hybrid networks.

A New Heterogeneous Catalyst Obtained via Supramolecular Decoration of Graphene with a Pd2+ Azamacrocyclic Complex

A new G-(H2L)-Pd heterogeneous catalyst has been prepared via a self-assembly process consisting in the spontaneous adsorption, in water at room temperature, of a macrocyclic H2L ligand on graphene (G) (G + H2L = G-(H2L)), followed by decoration of the macrocycle with Pd2+ ions (G-(H2L) + Pd2+ = G-(H2L)-Pd) under the same mild conditions. This supramolecular approach is a sustainable (green) procedure that preserves the special characteristics of graphene and furnishes an efficient catalyst for the Cu-free Sonogashira cross coupling reaction between iodobenzene and phenylacetylene. Indeed, G-(H2L)-Pd shows an excellent conversion (90%) of reactants into diphenylacetylene under mild conditions (50 °C, water, aerobic atmosphere, 14 h). The catalyst proved to be reusable for at least four cycles, although decreasing yields down to 50% were observed.