O-atom-transfer oxidation of [molybdenum(IV) oxo{3,6-(acylamino)2- 1,2-benzenedithiolato}2]2- promoted by intramolecular NH...S hydrogen bonds

Inspired by Nature-Functional Analogues of Molybdenum and Tungsten-Dependent Oxidoreductases

Throughout the previous ten years many scientists took inspiration from natural molybdenum and tungsten-dependent oxidoreductases to build functional active site analogues. These studies not only led to an ever more detailed mechanistic understanding of the biological template, but also paved the way to atypical selectivity and activity, such as catalytic hydrogen evolution. This review is aimed at representing the last decade’s progress in the research of and with molybdenum and tungsten functional model compounds. The portrayed systems, organized according to their ability to facilitate typical and artificial enzyme reactions, comprise complexes with non-innocent dithiolene ligands, resembling molybdopterin, as well as entirely non-natural nitrogen, oxygen, and/or sulfur bearing chelating donor ligands. All model compounds receive individual attention, highlighting the specific novelty that each provides for our understanding of the enzymatic mechanisms, such as oxygen atom transfer and proton-coupled electron transfer, or that each presents for exploiting new and useful catalytic capability. Overall, a shift in the application of these model compounds towards uncommon reactions is noted, the latter are comprehensively discussed.

The chemistry of dithietes, 1,2,5,6-tetrathiocins and higher oligomers

The synthesis and reactivity patterns of the strained dithiete ring are compared with their dimeric tetrathiocin counterparts and higher oligomers, highlighting: (i) their cycloaddition chemistry with organic dienophiles as a route to sulfur-containing heterocycles; (ii) their oxidative addition chemistry to low valent transition metal complexes to generate transition metal dithiolate complexes and; (iii) the base-catalysed isomerizations between different dithiete oligomers.

Dioxygen Activation with Molybdenum Complexes Bearing Amide-Functionalized Iminophenolate Ligands

Two novel iminophenolate ligands with amidopropyl side chains (HL2 and HL3) on the imine functionality have been synthesized in order to prepare dioxidomolybdenum(VI) complexes of the general structure [MoO₂L₂] featuring pendant internal hydrogen bond donors. For reasons of comparison, a previously published complex featuring n-butyl side chains (L1) was included in the investigation. Three complexes (1–3) obtained using these ligands (HL1–HL3) were able to activate dioxygen in an in situ approach: The intermediate molybdenum(IV) species [MoO(PMe₃)L₂] is first generated by treatment with an excess of PMe₃. Subsequent reaction with dioxygen leads to oxido peroxido complexes of the structure [MoO(O₂)L₂]. For the complex employing the ligand with the n-butyl side chain, the isolation of the oxidomolybdenum(IV) phosphino complex [MoO(PMe₃)(L1)₂] (4) was successful, whereas the respective Mo(IV) species employing the ligands with the amidopropyl side chains were found to be not stable enough to be isolated. The three oxido peroxido complexes of the structure [MoO(O₂)L₂] (9–11) were systematically compared to assess the influence of internal hydrogen bonds on the geometry as well as the catalytic activity in aerobic oxidation. All complexes were characterized by spectroscopic means. Furthermore, molecular structures were determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analyses of HL3, 1–3, 9–11 together with three polynuclear products {[MoO(L2)₂]₂(µ-O)} (7), {[MoO(L2)]₄(µ-O)₆} (8) and [C₉H₁₃N₂O]₄[Mo₈O₂₆]·6OPMe₃ (12) which were obtained during the synthesis of reduced complexes of the type [MoO(PMe₃)L₂] (4–6).

Remote Charge Effects on the Oxygen-Atom-Transfer Reactivity and Their Relationship to Molybdenum Enzymes

We report the syntheses, crystal structures, and characterization of the novel cis-dioxomolybdenum(VI) complexes [Tpm*Mo^VIO₂Cl](MoO₂Cl₃) (1) and [Tpm*Mo^VIO₂Cl](ClO₄) (2), which are supported by the charge-neutral tris(3,5-dimethyl-1-pyrazolyl)methane (Tpm*) ligand. A comparison between isostructural [Tpm*Mo^VIO₂Cl]⁺ and Tp*Mo^VIO₂Cl [Tp* = hydrotris(3,5-dimethyl-1-pyrazolyl)borate] reveals the effects of one unit of overall charge difference on their spectroscopic and electrochemical properties, geometric and electronic structures, and O-atom-transfer (OAT) reactivities, providing new insight into pyranopterin molybdoenzyme OAT reactivity. Computational studies of these molecules indicate that the delocalized positive charge lowers the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energy of cationic [Tpm*MoO₂Cl]⁺ relative to Tp*MoO₂Cl. Despite their virtually identical geometric structures revealed by crystal structures, the Mo^VI/Mo^V redox potential of 2 is increased by 350 mV relative to that of Tp*Mo^VIO₂Cl. This LUMO stabilization also contributes to an increased effective electrophilicity of [Tpm*MoO₂Cl]⁺ relative to that of Tp*MoO₂Cl, resulting in a more favorable resonant interaction between the molydenum complex LUMO and the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of the PPh₃ substrate. This leads to a greater thermodynamic driving force, an earlier transition state, and a lowered activation barrier for the orbitally controlled first step of the OAT reaction in the Tpm* system relative to the Tp* system. An Eyring plot analysis shows that this initial step yields an O≡Mo^IV-OPPh₃ intermediate via an associative transition state, and the reaction is ∼500-fold faster for 2 than for Tp*MoO₂Cl. The second step of the OAT reaction entails solvolysis of the O≡Mo^IV-OPPh₃ intermediate to afford the solvent-substituted Mo^IV product and is 750-fold faster for the Tpm* system at -15 °C compared to the Tp* system. The observed rate enhancement for the second step is ascribed to a switch of the reaction mechanism from a dissociative pathway for the Tp* system to an alternative associative pathway for the Tpm* system. This is due to a more Lewis acidic Mo^IV center in the Tpm* system.

Comparative studies on the contribution of NHS hydrogen bonds in tungsten and molybdenum benzenedithiolate complexes

A series of monooxotungsten(iv) and dioxotungsten(vi) benzenedithiolates, (NEt₄)₂[W^IVO(1,2-S₂-3-RCONHC₆H₃)₂] (1-W; R = CH₃ (a), t-Bu (b), or CF₃ (c)) and (NEt₄)₂[W^VIO₂(1,2-S₂-3-RCONHC₆H₃)₂] (2-W), were synthesized and compared with the corresponding molybdenum analogues. Single crystals of trans-1b-W were successfully obtained, and the crystal structure was determined by X-ray analysis although 1b-Mo could not be crystallized. The NHS hydrogen bonds shifted the potential of the W(iv/v) redox couple to more positive values, and the strength of the hydrogen bond and the positive shift value were strongly correlated. The hydrogen bonds in both 1-W and 2-W were weaker than those in the corresponding molybdenum analogues; however, the effect of the hydrogen bonds on the redox potential was greater in 1-W.

Acid-facilitated product release from a Mo(IV) center: relevance to oxygen atom transfer reactivity of molybdenum oxotransferases

We report that pyridinium ions (HPyr⁺) accelerate the conversion of [Tp*Mo^IVOCl(OPMe₃)] (1) to [Tp*Mo^IVOCl(NCCH₃)] (2) by 10³-fold, affording 2 in near-quantitative yield; Tp* = hydrotris(3,5-dimethyl-1-pyrazolyl)borate. This novel reactivity and the mechanism of this reaction were investigated in detail. The formation of 2 followed pseudo-first-order kinetics, with the observed pseudo-first-order rate constant (k _obs) linearly correlated with [HPyr⁺]. An Eyring plot revealed that this HPyr⁺-facilitated reaction has a small positive value of ∆S ^‡ indicative of a dissociative interchange (I_d) mechanism, different from the slower associative interchange (I_a) mechanism in the absence of HPyr⁺ marked with a negative ∆S ^‡. Interestingly, log(k _obs) was found to be linearly correlated to the acidity of substituted pyridinium ions. This novel reactivity is further investigated using combined DFT and ab initio coupled cluster methods. Different reaction pathways, including I_d, I_a, and possible alternative routes in the absence or presence of HPyr⁺, were considered, and enthalpy and free energies were calculated for each pathway. Our computational results further underscored that the I_d route is energetically favored in the presence of HPyr⁺, in contrast with the preferred I_a-NNO pathway in the absence of HPyr⁺. Our computational results also revealed molecular-level details for the HPyr⁺-facilitated I_d route. Specifically, HPyr⁺ initially becomes hydrogen-bonded to the oxygen atom of the Mo(IV)-OPMe₃ moiety, which lowers the activation barrier for the Mo-OPMe₃ bond cleavage in a rate-limiting step to dissociate the OPMe₃ product. The implications of our results were discussed in the context of molybdoenzymes, particularly the reductive half-reaction of sulfite oxidase.

Mechanistic investigation of trimethylamine-N-oxide reduction catalysed by biomimetic molybdenum enzyme models

In this paper, we report a theoretical investigation of the reduction reaction mechanism of Me3NO using molybdenum containing systems that are functional and structural analogues of trimethylamine N-oxide reductase mononuclear molybdenum enzyme. The reactivity of the monooxomolybdenum(IV) benzenedithiolato complex and its derivatives to carbamoyl (t-BuNHCO) and acylamino (t-BuCONH) substituents on the benzene rings in both cis and trans arrangements was explored. The calculated energy profiles describing the steps of two mechanisms of attack considered viable (named cis- and trans-attack) by the Me3NO substrate at cis and trans positions with respect to the oxo ligand show that the attack on cis is energetically more favourable than the attack on trans. Along the pathway for the cis-attack the first step of the reaction, that is rate-determining for all the studied compounds, is the approach of the substrate to the Mo centre in cis to the oxo ligand that causes a distortion of the initial square-pyramidal geometry of the complex. The reaction steps involved in the trans position attack were also explored. Calculations confirm that, as previously suggested, the introduction of ligands able to form intramolecular NH···S hydrogen bonds accelerates the reduction of the Me3NO substrate and contributes to the tuning of the reactivity of molybdoenzyme models.

Mononuclear bis(dithiolene) Mo(iv) and W(iv) complexes with P,P; S,S; O,S and O,O donor ligands: a comparative reactivity study

Comparative redox reactions of eight Mo^IV/W^IVcomplexes with P,P; S,S; S,O and O,O donor ligands are presented.

Efficient uptake of dimethyl sulfoxide by the desoxomolybdenum(IV) dithiolate complex containing bulky hydrophobic groups

A desoxomolybdenum(IV) complex containing bulky hydrophobic groups and NH···S hydrogen bonds, (Et4N)[Mo(IV)(OSi(t)BuPh2)(1,2-S2-3,6-{(4-(t)BuC6H4)3CCONH}2C6H2)2], was synthesized. This complex promotes the oxygen-atom-transfer (OAT) reaction of DMSO by efficient uptake of the substrate into the active center. The clean OAT reaction of Me3NO is also achieved.

Significant differences of monooxotungsten(IV) and dioxotungsten(VI) benzenedithiolates containing two intramolecular NHS hydrogen bonds from molybdenum analogues

A monooxotungsten(iv) benzenedithiolate complex containing two intramolecular NHS hydrogen bonds, (NEt4)2[W(IV)O(1,2-S2-3-t-BuNHCOC6H3)2] (1-W), was synthesized via a ligand-exchange reaction between a new starting complex, (NEt4)2[W(IV)O(SC6F5)4], and a partially deprotonated dithiol. When dithiol was used in solution, the oxo ligand was protonated and removed to afford (NEt4)2[W(IV)(1,2-S2-3-t-BuNHCOC6H3)3]. The trans isomer, trans-1-W, was crystallized, and the molecular structure was determined via X-ray analysis. Trans-1-W was gradually isomerized by heating it in solution and it eventually achieved an approximately 1 : 1 mixture of trans/cis isomers after 48 days. However, a slightly excess amount of trans isomer remained, so the isomerization rate was considerably slower than that of the molybdenum analogue. In the presence of NEt4BH4, deuteration of the NH protons was observed in acetonitrile-d3. The oxidation of both trans- and cis-1-W by Me3NO afforded the corresponding dioxotungsten(vi) complex, (NEt4)2[W(VI)O2(1,2-S2-3-t-BuNHCOC6H3)2] (2-W), as a single isomer. The contributions of the NHS hydrogen bonds to the bond distances, vibrational data, and electrochemical properties are described via comparisons with their molybdenum analogues. The results of this comparative study yielded insights into both tungsten and molybdenum enzymes.

Behavior of anionic molybdenum(IV, VI) and tungsten(IV, VI) complexes containing bulky hydrophobic dithiolate ligands and intramolecular NH···S hydrogen bonds in nonpolar solvents

Molybdenum(IV, VI) and tungsten(IV, VI) complexes, (Et4N)2[M(IV)O{1,2-S2-3,6-(RCONH)2C6H2}2] and (Et4N)2[M(VI)O2{1,2-S2-3,6-(RCONH)2C6H2}2] (M = Mo, W; R = (4-(t)BuC6H4)3C), with bulky hydrophobic dithiolate ligands containing NH···S hydrogen bonds were synthesized. These complexes are soluble in nonpolar solvents like toluene, which allows the detection of unsymmetrical coordination structures and elusive intermolecular interactions in solution. The (1)H NMR spectra of the complexes in toluene-d8 revealed an unsymmetrical coordination structure, and proximity of the counterions to the anion moiety was suggested at low temperatures. The oxygen-atom-transfer reaction between the molybdenum(IV) complex and Me3NO in toluene was considerably accelerated in nonpolar solvents, and this increase was attributed to the favorable access of the substrate to the active center in the hydrophobic environment.

Structural and functional models in molybdenum and tungsten bioinorganic chemistry: description of selected model complexes, present scenario and possible future scopes

A brief description about some selected model complexes in molybdenum and tungsten bioinorganic chemistry is provided. The synthetic strategies involved and their limitations are discussed. Current status of molybdenum and tungsten bioinorganic modeling chemistry is presented briefly and synthetic problems associated therein are analyzed. Possible future directions which may expand the scope of modeling chemistry are suggested.

Which functional groups of the molybdopterin ligand should be considered when modeling the active sites of the molybdenum and tungsten cofactors? A density functional theory study

A density functional theory study of the influence of the various functional groups of the molybdopterin ligand on electronic and geometric properties of active-site models for the molybdenum and tungsten cofactors has been undertaken. We used analogous molybdenum and tungsten complexes with increasingly accurate representation of the molybdopterin ligands and compared bond lengths, angles, charge distribution, composition of the binding orbitals, as well as the redox potentials in relation to each other. On the basis of our findings, we suggest using ligand systems including the pyrane and the pyrazine rings, besides the dithiolene function, to obtain sufficiently reliable computational, but also synthetic, models for the molybdenum and tungsten cofactors, whereas the second ring of the pterin might be neglected for efficiency reasons.

Design, syntheses, and characterization of dioxo-molybdenum(VI) complexes with thiolate ligands: effects of intraligand NH...S hydrogen bonding

Presence of the hydrogen bonding near a metal center can influence the properties of the complex. Here, we describe changes in redox and spectral properties in discrete dioxo-molybdenum centers coordinated by a single thiolato ligand that can support an intra-ligand hydrogen bond. We have utilized thiophenolato ligands that can harbor hydrogen bonding between the thiophenolato sulfur with an amide functionality creating either a five- or a six-membered ring. Methylation of the amide functionality removes the NH...S hydrogen bonding thus providing a basis for understanding the effect of hydrogen bonding. These thiophenolato ligands have been used in synthesizing dioxo-MoVI complexes of type Tp*MoO2(S-o-RC6H4), where R=CONHMe (), CONMe2 (), NHCOMe (), and N(Me)COMe (). The complexes have been characterized by NMR, infrared, and UV-visible spectroscopy. Spectroscopic data clearly indicate the presence of hydrogen bonding in both and , and stronger in , where hydrogen bonding stabilizes a five-membered ring. All complexes exhibit a Mo(VI)/Mo(V) redox couple and redox potentials are modulated by the nature of H-bonding. Compound with the electron-releasing N(Me)COMe group has the highest reduction potential and is more difficult to reduce.

Zinc, cadmium, and mercury 1,2-benzenedithiolates with intramolecular NH...S hydrogen bonds

Mononuclear Zn, Cd, and Hg 1,2-benzenedithiolates with intramolecular NH...S hydrogen bonds, [M(II){1,2-S2-3,6-(RCONH)2C6H2}2](2-) (R = CH 3, t-Bu; M = Zn, Cd, Hg), were synthesized and characterized by X-ray analysis and spectral measurements. The presence of intramolecular NH...S hydrogen bonds was established by the IR spectra. (199)Hg and (113)Cd nuclear magnetic resonance showed a stabilized four-thiolate coordinated structure and suggested the influence of the NH...S hydrogen bonds to ppi(Hg)-ppi(S) interactions. The NH stretching bands show that the NH...S hydrogen bonds in Cd and Hg complexes are stronger than those in the corresponding Zn complex. These results are supported by theoretical calculations. The experimental and theoretical results suggested that the NH...S hydrogen bond influences the efficient capture of toxic Cd and Hg ions by metallothioneins.