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Amusat O, Atia AA, Dudchenko AV, Bartholomew TV. Modeling Framework for Cost Optimization of Process-Scale Desalination Systems with Mineral Scaling and Precipitation. ACS ES&T ENGINEERING 2024; 4:1028-1047. [PMID: 38751651 PMCID: PMC11091887 DOI: 10.1021/acsestengg.3c00537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
Cost-optimization models are powerful tools for evaluating emerging water treatment processes. However, to date, optimization models do not incorporate detailed chemical reaction phenomena, limiting the assessment of pretreatment and mineral scaling. Moreover, novel approaches for high-salinity and high-recovery desalination are typically proposed without direct quantification of pretreatment needs or mineral scaling. This work addresses a critical gap in the literature by presenting a modeling framework that includes complex water chemistry predictions with process-scale optimization. We use this approach to conduct a technoeconomic assessment on a conceptual high-recovery treatment train that includes chemical pretreatment (i.e., soda ash softening and recarbonation) and membrane-based desalination (i.e., standard and high-pressure reverse osmosis). We demonstrate how to develop and integrate accurate multidimensional surrogate models for predicting precipitation, pH, and mineral scaling tendencies. Our findings show that cost-optimal results balance the costs of pretreatment with reverse osmosis system design. Optimizing across a range of water recoveries (i.e., 50-90%) reveals multiple cost-optimal schemas that vary the chemical dosing in pretreatment and the design and operation of reverse osmosis. Our results reveal that pretreatment costs can be more than double the cost of the primary desalination process at high recoveries due to the extensive pretreatment required to control scaling. This work emphasizes the importance of and provides a framework for including chemistry and mineral scaling predictions in the evaluation of emerging technologies in high-recovery desalination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwamayowa
O. Amusat
- Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Adam A. Atia
- National
Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15236, United States
- NETL
Support Contractor, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15236, United States
| | - Alexander V. Dudchenko
- SLAC
National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo
Park, California 94025, United States
| | - Timothy V. Bartholomew
- National
Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15236, United States
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2
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Dai Z, Zhao Y, Paudyal S, Wang X, Dai C, Ko S, Li W, Kan AT, Tomson MB. Gypsum scale formation and inhibition kinetics with implications in membrane system. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 225:119166. [PMID: 36198211 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.119166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 09/18/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Water desalination using membrane technology is one of the main technologies to resolve water pollution and scarcity issues. In the membrane treatment process, mineral scale deposition and fouling is a severe challenge that can lead to filtration efficiency decrease, permeate quality compromise, and even membrane damage. Multiple methods have been developed to resolve this problem, such as scale inhibitor addition, product recovery ratio adjustment, periodic membrane surface flushing. The performance of these methods largely depends on the ability to accurately predict the kinetics of mineral scale deposition and fouling with or without inhibitors. Gypsum is one of the most common and troublesome inorganic mineral scales in membrane systems, however, no mechanistic model is available to accurately predict the induction time of gypsum crystallization and inhibition. In this study, a new gypsum crystallization and inhibition model based on the classical nucleation theory and a Langmuir type adsorption isotherm has been developed. Through this model, it is believed that gypsum nucleation may gradually transit from homogeneous to heterogeneous nucleation when the gypsum saturation index (SI) decreases. Such transition is represented by a gradual decrease of surface tension at smaller SI values. This model assumes that the adsorption of inhibitors onto the gypsum nucleus can increase the nucleus superficial surface tension and prolong the induction time. Using the new model, this study accurately predicted the gypsum crystallization induction times with or without nine commonly used scale inhibitors over wide ranges of temperature (25-90 °C), SI (0.04-0.96), and background NaCl concentration (0-6 mol/L). The fitted affinity constants between scale inhibitors and gypsum show a good correlation with those between the same inhibitors and barite, indicating a similar inhibition mechanism via adsorption. Furthermore, by incorporating this model with the two-phase mineral deposition model our group developed previously, this study accurately predicts the gypsum deposition time on the membrane material surfaces reported in the literature. We believe that the model developed in this study can not only accurately predict the gypsum crystallization induction time with or without scale inhibitors, elucidate the gypsum crystallization and inhibition mechanisms, but also optimize the mineral scale control in the membrane filtration system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaoyi Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China; Hubei Key Laboratory of Critical Zone Evolution, School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, United States.
| | - Yue Zhao
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, United States; Research Institute of Petroleum Processing, SINOPEC, Beijing, China
| | - Samridhdi Paudyal
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, United States
| | - Xin Wang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, United States
| | - Chong Dai
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, United States
| | - Saebom Ko
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, United States
| | - Wei Li
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, United States
| | - Amy T Kan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, United States
| | - Mason B Tomson
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, United States
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3
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Classical and Recent Developments of Membrane Processes for Desalination and Natural Water Treatment. MEMBRANES 2022; 12:membranes12030267. [PMID: 35323741 PMCID: PMC8948695 DOI: 10.3390/membranes12030267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Water supply and water treatment are of major concern all around the world. In this respect, membrane processes are increasingly used and reported for a large range of applications. Desalination processes by membranes are well-established technologies with many desalination plants implemented in coastal areas. Natural water treatment is also well implemented to provide purified water for growing population. This review covers various aspects of desalination: membranes and modules, plants, fouling (scaling, biofouling, algal blooms), cleaning, pretreatment (conventional and membrane treatments), energy and environmental issues, renewable energies, boron removal and brine disposal. Treatment of natural water focuses on removal of natural organic matter, arsenic, iron, nitrate, fluoride, pesticides and herbicides, pharmaceutical and personal care products. This review underlines that desalination and natural water treatment require identical knowledge of membrane fouling, construction of large plants, cleaning procedures, energy and environmental issues, and that these two different fields can learn from each other.
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4
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Li M, Chan N, Li J. Novel Dynamic and Cyclic Designs for Ultra-High Recovery Waste and Brackish Water RO Desalination. Chem Eng Res Des 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cherd.2022.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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5
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Zhang W, Li N, Zhang X. Surface-engineered sulfonation of ion-selective nanofiltration membrane with robust scaling resistance for seawater desalination. J Memb Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2021.120191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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6
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Futterlieb M, ElSherbiny IMA, Tuczinski M, Lipnizki J, Panglisch S. Limits of High Recovery Inland Desalination: Closed‐Circuit Reverse Osmosis – a Viable Option? CHEM-ING-TECH 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/cite.202100042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Futterlieb
- University of Duisburg-Essen Chair for Mechanical Process Engineering and Water Technology Lotharstraße 1 47057 Duisburg Germany
| | - Ibrahim M. A. ElSherbiny
- University of Duisburg-Essen Chair for Mechanical Process Engineering and Water Technology Lotharstraße 1 47057 Duisburg Germany
| | - Marc Tuczinski
- IWW Water Centre Moritzstraße 26 45476 Mülheim an der Ruhr Germany
| | - Jens Lipnizki
- Suez WTS Germany GmbH Daniel-Goldbach-Straße 17–19 40880 Ratingen Germany
| | - Stefan Panglisch
- University of Duisburg-Essen Chair for Mechanical Process Engineering and Water Technology Lotharstraße 1 47057 Duisburg Germany
- DGMT German Society of Membrane Technology Geschäftsstelle ZWU Universitätsstraße 2 45141 Essen Germany
- IWW Water Centre Moritzstraße 26 45476 Mülheim an der Ruhr Germany
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7
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Jaramillo H, Boo C, Hashmi SM, Elimelech M. Zwitterionic coating on thin-film composite membranes to delay gypsum scaling in reverse osmosis. J Memb Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2020.118568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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8
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Rao U, Iddya A, Jung B, Khor CM, Hendren Z, Turchi C, Cath T, Hoek EMV, Ramon GZ, Jassby D. Mineral Scale Prevention on Electrically Conducting Membrane Distillation Membranes Using Induced Electrophoretic Mixing. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:3678-3690. [PMID: 32091205 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b07806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The growth of mineral crystals on surfaces is a challenge across multiple industrial processes. Membrane-based desalination processes, in particular, are plagued by crystal growth (known as scaling), which restricts the flow of water through the membrane, can cause membrane wetting in membrane distillation, and can lead to the physical destruction of the membrane material. Scaling occurs when supersaturated conditions develop along the membrane surface due to the passage of water through the membrane, a process known as concentration polarization. To reduce scaling, concentration polarization is minimized by encouraging turbulent conditions and by reducing the amount of water recovered from the saline feed. In addition, antiscaling chemicals can be used to reduce the availability of cations. Here, we report on an energy-efficient electrophoretic mixing method capable of nearly eliminating CaSO4 and silicate scaling on electrically conducting membrane distillation (ECMD) membranes. The ECMD membrane material is composed of a percolating layer of carbon nanotubes deposited on porous polypropylene support and cross-linked by poly(vinyl alcohol). The application of low alternating potentials (2 Vpp,1Hz) had a dramatic impact on scale formation, with the impact highly dependent on the frequency of the applied signal, and in the case of silicate, on the pH of the solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Unnati Rao
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-153, United States
| | - Arpita Iddya
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-153, United States
| | - Bongyeon Jung
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-153, United States
| | - Chia Miang Khor
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-153, United States
| | - Zachary Hendren
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, United States
| | - Craig Turchi
- Department of Energy, National Renewable Energy Lab, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Tzahi Cath
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Eric M V Hoek
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-153, United States
| | - Guy Z Ramon
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel
| | - David Jassby
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-153, United States
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9
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Lee T, Choi JY, Cohen Y. Gypsum scaling propensity in semi-batch RO (SBRO) and steady-state RO with partial recycle (SSRO-PR). J Memb Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2019.05.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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10
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Mineral scaling in membrane desalination: Mechanisms, mitigation strategies, and feasibility of scaling-resistant membranes. J Memb Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2019.02.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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11
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Warsinger DM, Tow EW, Maswadeh LA, Connors GB, Swaminathan J, Lienhard V JH. Inorganic fouling mitigation by salinity cycling in batch reverse osmosis. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 137:384-394. [PMID: 29573825 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.01.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 01/25/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Enhanced fouling resistance has been observed in recent variants of reverse osmosis (RO) desalination which use time-varying batch or semi-batch processes, such as closed-circuit RO (CCRO) and pulse flow RO (PFRO). However, the mechanisms of batch processes' fouling resistance are not well-understood, and models have not been developed for prediction of their fouling performance. Here, a framework for predicting reverse osmosis fouling is developed by comparing the fluid residence time in batch and continuous (conventional) reverse osmosis systems to the nucleation induction times for crystallization of sparingly soluble salts. This study considers the inorganic foulants calcium sulfate (gypsum), calcium carbonate (calcite), and silica, and the work predicts maximum recovery ratios for the treatment of typical water sources using batch reverse osmosis (BRO) and continuous reverse osmosis. The prediction method is validated through comparisons to the measured time delay for CaSO4 membrane scaling in a bench-scale, recirculating reverse osmosis unit. The maximum recovery ratio for each salt solution (CaCO3, CaSO4) is individually predicted as a function of inlet salinity, as shown in contour plots. Next, the maximum recovery ratios of batch and conventional RO are compared across several water sources, including seawater, brackish groundwater, and RO brine. Batch RO's shorter residence times, associated with cycling from low to high salinity during each batch, enable significantly higher recovery ratios and higher salinity than in continuous RO for all cases examined. Finally, representative brackish RO brine samples were analyzed to determine the maximum possible recovery with batch RO. Overall, the induction time modeling methodology provided here can be used to allow batch RO to operate at high salinity and high recovery, while controlling scaling. The results show that, in addition to its known energy efficiency improvement, batch RO has superior inorganic fouling resistance relative to conventional RO.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Warsinger
- Rohsenow Kendall Heat Transfer Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139-4307, USA
| | - Emily W Tow
- Rohsenow Kendall Heat Transfer Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139-4307, USA
| | - Laith A Maswadeh
- Department of Management Science and Engineering, Stanford University, 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA, 98305, USA
| | - Grace B Connors
- Rohsenow Kendall Heat Transfer Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139-4307, USA
| | - Jaichander Swaminathan
- Rohsenow Kendall Heat Transfer Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139-4307, USA
| | - John H Lienhard V
- Rohsenow Kendall Heat Transfer Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139-4307, USA.
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12
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Li L, Zhao R, Wang L, Wu S, Wang T. Correlation of surface concentration polarization with the surface electrochemistry of a permselective Membrane: An ex situ electrical impedance spectroscopy study. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2017.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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13
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Pantoja CE, Nariyoshi YN, Seckler MM. Membrane Distillation Crystallization Applied to Brine Desalination: Additional Design Criteria. Ind Eng Chem Res 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.5b03807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carlos E. Pantoja
- Department of Chemical Engineering,
Polytechnic School, University of São Paulo, Avenida Prof.
Luciano Gualberto, Travessa 3, número 380, 05508-900 São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Yuri N. Nariyoshi
- Department of Chemical Engineering,
Polytechnic School, University of São Paulo, Avenida Prof.
Luciano Gualberto, Travessa 3, número 380, 05508-900 São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcelo M. Seckler
- Department of Chemical Engineering,
Polytechnic School, University of São Paulo, Avenida Prof.
Luciano Gualberto, Travessa 3, número 380, 05508-900 São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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14
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Biofouling in reverse osmosis processes: The roles of flux, crossflow velocity and concentration polarization in biofilm development. J Memb Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2014.04.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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15
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Hu Z, Antony A, Leslie G, Le-Clech P. Real-time monitoring of scale formation in reverse osmosis using electrical impedance spectroscopy. J Memb Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2013.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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16
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Halevy S, Korin E, Gilron J. Kinetics of Gypsum Precipitation for Designing Interstage Crystallizers for Concentrate in High Recovery Reverse Osmosis. Ind Eng Chem Res 2013. [DOI: 10.1021/ie400977p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shuli Halevy
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 653, Beer-sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Eli Korin
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 653, Beer-sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Jack Gilron
- Department
of Desalination and Water Treatment, Zuckerberg
Institute for Water Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 653, Beer-sheva, 84105, Israel
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18
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Lu X, Kujundzic E, Mizrahi G, Wang J, Cobry K, Peterson M, Gilron J, Greenberg AR. Ultrasonic sensor control of flow reversal in RO desalination—Part 1: Mitigation of calcium sulfate scaling. J Memb Sci 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2012.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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19
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Improving performance of spiral wound RO elements by in situ concentration polarization-enhanced radical graft polymerization. J Memb Sci 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2012.02.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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20
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Antony A, Low JH, Gray S, Childress AE, Le-Clech P, Leslie G. Scale formation and control in high pressure membrane water treatment systems: A review. J Memb Sci 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2011.08.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 337] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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21
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Uchymiak M, Bartman AR, Daltrophe N, Weissman M, Gilron J, Christofides PD, Kaiser WJ, Cohen Y. Brackish water reverse osmosis (BWRO) operation in feed flow reversal mode using an ex situ scale observation detector (EXSOD). J Memb Sci 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2009.05.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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22
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Steiu S, Bruno JC, Coronas A, San Roman MF, Ortiz I. Separation of Ammonia/Water/Sodium Hydroxide Mixtures Using Reverse Osmosis Membranes for Low Temperature Driven Absorption Chillers. Ind Eng Chem Res 2008. [DOI: 10.1021/ie8004012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simona Steiu
- Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CREVER-Grup d’Enginyeria Tèrmica Aplicada, Av. Països Catalans, 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain, and Universidad de Cantabria, ETSIIyT, Dpto de Ingeniería Química y QI, Av. Castros s/n, 39005 Santander, Spain
| | - Joan Carles Bruno
- Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CREVER-Grup d’Enginyeria Tèrmica Aplicada, Av. Països Catalans, 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain, and Universidad de Cantabria, ETSIIyT, Dpto de Ingeniería Química y QI, Av. Castros s/n, 39005 Santander, Spain
| | - Alberto Coronas
- Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CREVER-Grup d’Enginyeria Tèrmica Aplicada, Av. Països Catalans, 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain, and Universidad de Cantabria, ETSIIyT, Dpto de Ingeniería Química y QI, Av. Castros s/n, 39005 Santander, Spain
| | - Ma Fresnedo San Roman
- Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CREVER-Grup d’Enginyeria Tèrmica Aplicada, Av. Països Catalans, 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain, and Universidad de Cantabria, ETSIIyT, Dpto de Ingeniería Química y QI, Av. Castros s/n, 39005 Santander, Spain
| | - Inmaculada Ortiz
- Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CREVER-Grup d’Enginyeria Tèrmica Aplicada, Av. Països Catalans, 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain, and Universidad de Cantabria, ETSIIyT, Dpto de Ingeniería Química y QI, Av. Castros s/n, 39005 Santander, Spain
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