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Guo J, Liu Y, Chen P, Wang X, Wang Y, Guo J, Qiu X, Zeng Z, Jiang L, Yi Y, Watanabe S, Liao L, Bai Y, Nguyen T, Hu Y. Revealing the Electrophilic-Attack Doping Mechanism for Efficient and Universal p-Doping of Organic Semiconductors. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2203111. [PMID: 36089649 PMCID: PMC9661849 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202203111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Doping is of great importance to tailor the electrical properties of semiconductors. However, the present doping methodologies for organic semiconductors (OSCs) are either inefficient or can only apply to some OSCs conditionally, seriously limiting their general applications. Herein, a novel p-doping mechanism is revealed by investigating the interactions between the dopant trityl tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl) borate (TrTPFB) and poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT). It is found that electrophilic attack of the trityl cations on thiophenes results in the formation of tritylated thiophenium ions, which subsequently induce electron transfer from neighboring P3HT chains to realize p-doping. This unique p-doping mechanism enables TrTPFB to p-dope various OSCs including those with high ionization energy (IE ≈ 5.8 eV). Moreover, this doping mechanism endows TrTPFB with strong doping capability, leading to doping efficiency of over 80% in P3HT. The discovery and elucidation of this novel doping mechanism not only points out that strong electrophiles are a class of efficient p-dopants for OSCs, but also provides new opportunities toward highly efficient doping of various OSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Guo
- International Science and Technology Innovation Cooperation Base for Advanced Display Technologies of Hunan ProvinceCollege of Semiconductors (College of Integrated Circuits)Hunan UniversityChangsha410082P. R. China
| | - Ying Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Chem‐/Bio‐Sensing and ChemometricsSchool of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringHunan UniversityChangshaHunan410082P. R. China
| | - Ping‐An Chen
- International Science and Technology Innovation Cooperation Base for Advanced Display Technologies of Hunan ProvinceCollege of Semiconductors (College of Integrated Circuits)Hunan UniversityChangsha410082P. R. China
| | - Xinhao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Chem‐/Bio‐Sensing and ChemometricsSchool of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringHunan UniversityChangshaHunan410082P. R. China
| | - Yanpei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Chem‐/Bio‐Sensing and ChemometricsSchool of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringHunan UniversityChangshaHunan410082P. R. China
| | - Jing Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Chem‐/Bio‐Sensing and ChemometricsSchool of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringHunan UniversityChangshaHunan410082P. R. China
| | - Xincan Qiu
- International Science and Technology Innovation Cooperation Base for Advanced Display Technologies of Hunan ProvinceCollege of Semiconductors (College of Integrated Circuits)Hunan UniversityChangsha410082P. R. China
| | - Zebing Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Chem‐/Bio‐Sensing and ChemometricsSchool of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringHunan UniversityChangshaHunan410082P. R. China
| | - Lang Jiang
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular SciencesKey Laboratory of Organic SolidsInstitute of ChemistryChinese Academy of SciencesBeijing100190P. R. China
| | - Yuanping Yi
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular SciencesKey Laboratory of Organic SolidsInstitute of ChemistryChinese Academy of SciencesBeijing100190P. R. China
| | - Shun Watanabe
- Material Innovation Research Center (MIRC) and Department of Advanced Material ScienceGraduate School of Frontier SciencesThe University of Tokyo5‐1‐5 KashiwanohaKashiwaChiba77‐8561Japan
| | - Lei Liao
- International Science and Technology Innovation Cooperation Base for Advanced Display Technologies of Hunan ProvinceCollege of Semiconductors (College of Integrated Circuits)Hunan UniversityChangsha410082P. R. China
| | - Yugang Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Chem‐/Bio‐Sensing and ChemometricsSchool of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringHunan UniversityChangshaHunan410082P. R. China
| | - Thuc‐Quyen Nguyen
- Center for Polymers and Organic SolidsDepartment of Chemistry and BiochemistryUniversity of California at Santa BarbaraSanta BarbaraCA93106USA
| | - Yuanyuan Hu
- International Science and Technology Innovation Cooperation Base for Advanced Display Technologies of Hunan ProvinceCollege of Semiconductors (College of Integrated Circuits)Hunan UniversityChangsha410082P. R. China
- Shenzhen Research Institute of Hunan UniversityShenzhen518063P. R. China
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Scholz F, Himmel D, Eisele L, Unkrig W, Martens A, Schlüter P, Krossing I. The Acidity of the HBr/AlBr3System: Stabilization of Crystalline Protonated Arenes and Their Acidity in Bromoaluminate Ionic Liquids. Chemistry 2015; 21:7489-502. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201405952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Del Vecchio E, Boga C, Forlani L, Tozzi S, Micheletti G, Cino S. Ring closure of azo compounds to 1,2-annulated benzimidazole derivatives and further evidence of reversibility of the azo-coupling reaction. J Org Chem 2015; 80:2216-22. [PMID: 25615685 DOI: 10.1021/jo5027244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The reaction between 1,3,5-tris(N,N-dialkylamino)benzene derivatives and 2 equiv of p-substituted benzenediazonium salts gives dicationic species which collapse to new benzimidazole derivatives with expulsion of p-substituted anilines. The presence of electron-withdrawing groups on the benzenediazo moiety of the dicationic species plays a key role in this unexpected ring closure reaction. The observed chemical behavior has been rationalized in terms of the already reported reversibility of azo coupling reactions and provided further evidence for it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erminia Del Vecchio
- Department of Industrial Chemistry 'Toso Montanari', Alma Mater Studiorum, Università di Bologna , Viale del Risorgimento, 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
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Scholz F, Himmel D, Eisele L, Unkrig W, Krossing I. The Superacid HBr/AlBr3: Protonation of Benzene and Ordered Crystal Structure of [C6H7]+[Al2Br7]−. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014; 53:1689-92. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201308120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Scholz F, Himmel D, Eisele L, Unkrig W, Krossing I. Die Supersäure HBr/AlBr3: Protonierung von Benzol und ausgeordnete Kristallstruktur von [C6H7]+[Al2Br7]−. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201308120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Poverenov E, Efremenko I, Leitus G, Martin JML, Milstein D. Benzyl Cation Stabilized by Metal Complexation. Relative Stability of Coordinated Methylene Arenium, π-Benzylic, and σ-Benzylic Structures. Organometallics 2013. [DOI: 10.1021/om400523f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Poverenov
- Department of Food Quality and
Safety, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, 50250, Israel
| | - Irena Efremenko
- Department of Organic Chemistry, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Gregory Leitus
- Unit of Chemical Research Support, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Jan M. L. Martin
- Department of Organic Chemistry, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - David Milstein
- Department of Organic Chemistry, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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Ma Q, Chakraborty D, Faglioni F, Muller RP, Goddard WA, Harris T, Campbell C, Tang Y. Alkylation of Phenol: A Mechanistic View. J Phys Chem A 2006; 110:2246-52. [PMID: 16466262 DOI: 10.1021/jp0560213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The current work utilizes the ab initio density functional theory (DFT) to develop a molecular level of the mechanistic understanding on the phenol alkylation in the presence of a cation-exchange resin catalyst, Amberlyst-15. The catalyst is modeled with the benzene sulfonic acid, and the effect of this acid on olefins such as isopropene (i-Pr) and tributene (t-Bu) in a phenol solution mimics the experimental condition. A neutral-pathway mechanism is established to account for early-stage high concentration of the phenolic ether observed in experiments. The mechanism involves an exothermic reaction between olefin and the benzene sulfonic acid to form ester followed by three reaction pathways leading to direct O-alkylation, o-C-alkylation, and p-C-alkylation. Our calculations conclude that O-alkylation to form the phenolic ether is the most energetically favorable in the neutral condition. An ionic rearrangement mechanism describes intramolecular migrations of the alkyl group from the phenolic ether to form C-alkylphenols, while the positively charged protonation significantly lowers transition barriers for these migrations. The ionic rearrangement mechanism accounts for high yields of o-C-alkylphenol and p-C-alkylphenol. Competition between the H atom and the alkyl R group at the substitutive site of the protonated ortho configuration is found to be the determining factor to the ortho/para ratio of C-alkylation products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qisheng Ma
- California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
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von Ragué Schleyer P, Buzek P, Müller T, Apeloig Y, Siehl HU. The Search for an Isolable Silyl Cation Must Continue. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.199314711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Reed CA, Kim KC, Stoyanov ES, Stasko D, Tham FS, Mueller LJ, Boyd PDW. Isolating benzenium ion salts. J Am Chem Soc 2003; 125:1796-804. [PMID: 12580605 DOI: 10.1021/ja027336o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
When partnered with carborane anions, arenium ions are remarkably stable. Previously investigated only at subambient temperatures in highly superacidic media, protonated benzene is readily isolated as a crystalline salt, thermally stable to >150 degrees C. Salts of the type [H(arene)][carborane] have been prepared by protonating benzene, toluene, m-xylene, mesitylene, and hexamethylbenzene with the carborane superacid H(CB(11)HR(5)X(6)) (R = H, Me; X = Cl, Br). They have been characterized by elemental analysis, X-ray crystallography, NMR and IR methods. Solid-state (13)C NMR spectra are similar to those observed earlier in solution, indicating that lattice interactions are comparable to solution solvation effects. The acidic proton(s) of the arenium cations interact weakly with the halide substituents of the anion via ion pairing. This is reflected in the dependence of the C-H stretching frequency on the basicity of the carborane anion. Bond lengths in the arenium ions are consistent with predominant cyclohexadienyl cation character, but charge distribution within the cation is less well represented by this resonance form. Structural and vibrational comparison to theory is made for the benzenium ion (C(6)H(7)(+)) with density functional theory at B3LYP/6-31G and B3P86/6-311+G(d,p) levels. The stability of these salts elevates arenium ions from the status of transients (Wheland intermediates) to reagents. They have been used to bracket the solution-phase basicity of C(60) between that of mesitylene and xylene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher A Reed
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521-0403, USA.
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Heinze J, Willmann C, Bäuerle P. Evidence for σ Dimerization During Anodic Redox Switching of 1,3,5-Tripyrrolidinobenzene: A New Molecular Switch. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2001; 40:2861-2864. [DOI: 10.1002/1521-3773(20010803)40:15<2861::aid-anie2861>3.0.co;2-t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2001] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Heinze J, Willmann C, Bäuerle P. Reversible σ-Dimerisierung bei der Redoxumschaltung von 1,3,5-Tripyrrolidinobenzol - ein neuer molekularer Schalter. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2001. [DOI: 10.1002/1521-3757(20010803)113:15<2936::aid-ange2936>3.0.co;2-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Effenberger F, Maier AH. Changing the ortho/para ratio in aromatic acylation reactions by changing reaction conditions: a mechanistic explanation from kinetic measurements. J Am Chem Soc 2001; 123:3429-33. [PMID: 11472113 DOI: 10.1021/ja0022066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Kinetic measurements of the acylation of toluene (2a) and p-xylene (2b), side-chain deuterated toluene (2a-d(3)), as well as perdeuterated toluene (2a-d(8)) and p-xylene (2b-d(10)) with the aroyl triflate 1 in 1,2-dichloroethane reveal a strong dependence of the isotope effect on reaction conditions. In the presence of trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (HOTf), the second-order rate constants k(H)/k(D) observed are in the order of 1.75-1.94, whereas in the presence of 2,4,6-tri-tert-butylpyridine (4) rate constants k(H)/k(D) of 1.14-1.25 are found. The primary kinetic isotope effects observed correlate with the ortho/para ratio of the acylation of toluene. In the presence of 4 a relatively high percentage ( approximately 30%) of ortho product is obtained, whereas under acidic conditions the ratio is only 10%. The correlation between isotope effects and isomer distributions is obviously due to the rate of deprotonation of the corresponding sigma-complex intermediates. Assuming a bent structure for sigma-complexes, the conformation giving deprotonation is preferred in the para sigma-complex in comparison with ortho complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Effenberger
- Institut für Organische Chemie, Universität Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring 55, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
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Miklis PC, Ditchfield R, Spencer TA. Carbocation−π Interaction: Computational Study of Complexation of Methyl Cation with Benzene and Comparisons with Related Systems. J Am Chem Soc 1998. [DOI: 10.1021/ja980505d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul C. Miklis
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, Burke Laboratory, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755
| | - Robert Ditchfield
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, Burke Laboratory, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755
| | - Thomas A. Spencer
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, Burke Laboratory, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755
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Vigalok A, Shimon LJW, Milstein D. Methylene Arenium Cations via Quinone Methides and Xylylenes Stabilized by Metal Complexation. J Am Chem Soc 1998. [DOI: 10.1021/ja972321p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Arkadi Vigalok
- Contribution from the Departments of Organic Chemistry and Chemical Services, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Linda J. W. Shimon
- Contribution from the Departments of Organic Chemistry and Chemical Services, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - David Milstein
- Contribution from the Departments of Organic Chemistry and Chemical Services, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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Comparative studies of the molecular structure of 1-R-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexamethylbenzenonium ions: Molecular and crystal structure of 1-chloromethyl-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexamethylbenzenonium tetrachloroaluminate. J STRUCT CHEM+ 1996. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02578602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Glukhovtsev MN, Pross A, Nicolaides A, Radom L. Is the most stable gas-phase isomer of the benzenium cation a face-protonated π-complex? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1995. [DOI: 10.1039/c39950002347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Schleyer PVR, Buzek P, Müller T, Apeloig Y, Siehl HU. Die Suche nach einem isolierbaren Silyl-Kation muß weitergehen. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 1993. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.19931051050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Jens Wolff J, Irngartinger H, Gredel F, Bolocan I. Structures of tris(donor)-tris(acceptor)-substituted benzenes, 5. Organization and reorganization of the π system in a symmetric tris(alkylamino)trinitrobenzene: balance between cyanine and quinoid structures. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1993. [DOI: 10.1002/cber.19931260924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Theoretical study of mechanisms of aromatic nucleophilic substitution in the gas phase. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/0166-1280(93)87187-i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Lambert JB, Zhang S, Stern CL, Huffman JC. Crystal Structure of a Silyl Cation with No Coordination to Anion and Distant Coordination to Solvent. Science 1993; 260:1917-8. [PMID: 17836721 DOI: 10.1126/science.260.5116.1917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 274] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The crystal structure of a stable silyl cation, triethylsilylium, in the form of its tetrakis (pentafluorophenyl)borate salt [Et(3)Si(+) (C(6)F(5))(4)B(-)] (Et, ethyl) shows no coordination between cation and anion. The closest silicon-fluorine distance is greater than 4 angstroms. A toluene solvent molecule is close enough to cause some deviations from planarity at the silicon, but the silicon-toluene distance is well beyond the sum of the silicon and carbon covalent radii. The toluene molecule is essentially planar and undistorted, as expected if little or no positive charge has been transferred from silicon to toluene.
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Effenberger F, Götz G, Bäuerle P. Synthese und Eigenschaften von σ-verbrückten Anthracen-Viologenen[1]. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1992. [DOI: 10.1002/cber.19921250428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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2,4,6-Tris(dialkylamino)pyrylium salts and related systems, synthesis and reaction behaviour. Tetrahedron Lett 1988. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4039(00)80583-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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