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Durydivka O, Palivec P, Gazdarica M, Mackie K, Blahos J, Kuchar M. Hexahydrocannabinol (HHC) and Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ 9-THC) driven activation of cannabinoid receptor 1 results in biased intracellular signaling. Sci Rep 2024; 14:9181. [PMID: 38649680 PMCID: PMC11035541 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-58845-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The Cannabis sativa plant has been used for centuries as a recreational drug and more recently in the treatment of patients with neurological or psychiatric disorders. In many instances, treatment goals include relief from posttraumatic disorders, anxiety, or to support treatment of chronic pain. Ligands acting on cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1R) are also potential targets for the treatment of other health conditions. Using an evidence-based approach, pharmacological investigation of CB1R agonists is timely, with the aim to provide chronically ill patients relief using well-defined and characterized compounds from cannabis. Hexahydrocannabinol (HHC), currently available over the counter in many countries to adults and even children, is of great interests to policy makers, legal administrators, and healthcare regulators, as well as pharmacologists. Herein, we studied the pharmacodynamics of HHC epimers, which activate CB1R. We compared their key CB1R-mediated signaling pathway activities and compared them to the pathways activated by Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC). We provide evidence that activation of CB1R by HHC ligands is only broadly comparable to those mediated by Δ9-THC, and that both HHC epimers have unique properties. Together with the greater chemical stability of HHC compared to Δ9-THC, these molecules have a potential to become a part of modern medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oleh Durydivka
- Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 142 20, Prague 4, Czech Republic.
- Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 3, Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Petr Palivec
- Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 3, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Matej Gazdarica
- Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 142 20, Prague 4, Czech Republic
| | - Ken Mackie
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Gill Center for Molecular Bioscience, Indiana University, 1101 E. 10th St., Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA
| | - Jaroslav Blahos
- Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 142 20, Prague 4, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Kuchar
- Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 3, Prague, Czech Republic.
- Psychedelic Research Center, National Institute of Mental Health, Topolová 748, Klecany, Czech Republic.
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Ujváry I. Hexahydrocannabinol and closely related semi-synthetic cannabinoids: A comprehensive review. Drug Test Anal 2024; 16:127-161. [PMID: 37269160 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Since the early 2000s, there has been a turmoil on the global illicit cannabinoid market. Parallel to legislative changes in some jurisdictions regarding herbal cannabis, unregulated and cheap synthetic cannabinoids with astonishing structural diversity have emerged. Recently, semi-synthetic cannabinoids manufactured from hemp extracts by simple chemical transformations have also appeared as recreational drugs. The burst of these semi-synthetic cannabinoids into the market was sparked by legislative changes in the United States, where cultivation of industrial hemp restarted. By now, hemp-derived cannabidiol (CBD), initially a blockbuster product on its own, became a "precursor" to semi-synthetic cannabinoids such as hexahydrocannabinol (HHC), which appeared on the drug market in 2021. The synthesis and cannabimimetic activity of HHC were first reported eight decades ago in quest for the psychoactive principles of marijuana and hashish. Current large-scale manufacture of HHC is based on hemp-derived CBD extract, which is converted first by cyclization into a Δ8 /Δ9 -THC mixture, followed by catalytic hydrogenation to afford a mixture of (9R)-HHC and (9S)-HHC epimers. Preclinical studies indicate that (9R)-HHC has THC-like pharmacological properties. The animal metabolism of HHC is partially clarified. The human pharmacology including metabolism of HHC is yet to be investigated, and (immuno)analytical methods for the rapid detection of HHC or its metabolites in urine are lacking. Herein, the legal background for the revitalization of hemp cultivation, and available information on the chemistry, analysis, and pharmacology of HHC and related analogs, including HHC acetate (HHC-O) is reviewed.
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Labadie M, Nardon A, Castaing N, Bragança C, Daveluy A, Gaulier JM, El Balkhi S, Grenouillet M. Hexahydrocannabinol poisoning reported to French poison centres. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2024; 62:112-119. [PMID: 38426845 DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2024.2318409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Hexahydrocannabinol is a hexahydro derivative of cannabinol. Poisoning with hexahydrocannabinol was first observed in Europe in May 2022. METHOD This is a retrospective observational study of cases of self-reported hexahydrocannabinol exposure reported to French poison centres between 1 January 2022 and 31 May 2023. RESULTS There were 37 cases, including 19 in May 2023. The median age of the patients was 36 (interquartile range 28-43) years, and most were men. Eight patients had a history of substance use disorder. The route of exposure was ingestion in 24, inhalation (smoking or vaping) in 10, inhalation and ingestion in two and sublingual in one. Clinical features were neurological (85 per cent), cardiovascular (61 per cent), gastrointestinal (33 per cent), psychiatric (27 per cent) and ocular (21 per cent). Fifty-nine per cent of the patients were hospitalized. In four patients, the Poisoning Severity Score was 0 (asymptomatic); in 15 patients, the Score was 1 (minor); in 16, the Score was 2 (moderate); and in two cases, the Score was 3 (severe). In 70 per cent of patients, the outcome was known, and all recovered. Testing of biological samples was only undertaken in six cases. Five patients had positive blood or urine tests for hexahydrocannabinol; in two patients, tetrahydrocannabinol and metabolites were also detected. In addition, there was an additional patient in whom Δ8- and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol was detected in the substances used. DISCUSSION Clinical effects reported in this series included neuropsychiatric and somatic effects. Whilst these cases related to self-reported hexahydrocannabinol use, it is likely that tetrahydrocannabinol use also contributed to the effects in a substantial proportion of cases. This study has some limitations, such as the lack of available information due to the retrospective nature of the study. As a result, it probably overestimates the number of moderate and severe cases due to under-reporting of cases of little or no severity. Analysis of the patient's blood and urine was performed only in six patients, so we cannot be certain that the products consumed by the other patients were hexahydrocannabinol. CONCLUSION The clinical effects attributed to hexahydrocannabinol were neurological, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, psychiatric and ocular predominantly and were sometimes serious.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Audrey Nardon
- Centre antipoison, CHU de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Nadège Castaing
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie et Toxicologie, CHU de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | | | | | | | - Souleiman El Balkhi
- Département de Pharmacologie, Toxicologie and Pharmacovigilance, CHU de Limoges, Limoges, France
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Russo F, Vandelli MA, Biagini G, Schmid M, Luongo L, Perrone M, Ricciardi F, Maione S, Laganà A, Capriotti AL, Gallo A, Carbone L, Perrone E, Gigli G, Cannazza G, Citti C. Synthesis and pharmacological activity of the epimers of hexahydrocannabinol (HHC). Sci Rep 2023; 13:11061. [PMID: 37422571 PMCID: PMC10329643 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-38188-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabis is a multifaceted plant with numerous therapeutic properties on one hand, and controversial psychotropic activities on the other hand, which are modulated by CB1 endocannabinoid receptors. Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) has been identified as the main component responsible for the psychotropic effects, while its constitutional isomer cannabidiol (CBD) has shown completely different pharmacological properties. Due to its reported beneficial effects, Cannabis has gained global popularity and is openly sold in shops and online. To circumvent legal restrictions, semi-synthetic derivatives of CBD are now frequently added to cannabis products, producing "high" effects similar to those induced by Δ9-THC. The first semi-synthetic cannabinoid to appear in the EU was obtained through cyclization and hydrogenation of CBD, and is known as hexahydrocannabinol (HHC). Currently, there is limited knowledge regarding HHC, its pharmacological properties, and its prevalence, as it is not commonly investigated in routine toxicological assays. In this study, synthetic strategies were explored to obtain an excess of the active epimer of HHC. Furthermore, the two epimers were purified and individually tested for their cannabinomimetic activity. Lastly, a simple and rapid chromatographic method employing a UV detector and a high-resolution mass spectrometer was applied to identify and quantify up to ten major phytocannabinoids, as well as the HHC epimers, in commercial cannabis samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiana Russo
- Clinical and Experimental Medicine PhD Program, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125, Modena, Italy
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125, Modena, Italy
| | - Maria Angela Vandelli
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, 41125, Modena, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Biagini
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125, Modena, Italy
| | - Martin Schmid
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Graz, Schubertstraße 1, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Livio Luongo
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Experimental Medicine, Università Della Campania "L. Vanvitelli", Via Santa Maria di Costantinopoli 16, 80138, Naples, Italy
| | - Michela Perrone
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Experimental Medicine, Università Della Campania "L. Vanvitelli", Via Santa Maria di Costantinopoli 16, 80138, Naples, Italy
| | - Federica Ricciardi
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Experimental Medicine, Università Della Campania "L. Vanvitelli", Via Santa Maria di Costantinopoli 16, 80138, Naples, Italy
| | - Sabatino Maione
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Experimental Medicine, Università Della Campania "L. Vanvitelli", Via Santa Maria di Costantinopoli 16, 80138, Naples, Italy
| | - Aldo Laganà
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Anna Laura Capriotti
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Alfonso Gallo
- Department of Chemistry, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute 2, 80055, Portici, Italy
| | - Luigi Carbone
- Institute of Nanotechnology - CNR NANOTEC, Campus Ecotekne, Via Monteroni, 73100, Lecce, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Perrone
- Institute of Nanotechnology - CNR NANOTEC, Campus Ecotekne, Via Monteroni, 73100, Lecce, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Gigli
- Institute of Nanotechnology - CNR NANOTEC, Campus Ecotekne, Via Monteroni, 73100, Lecce, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Cannazza
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, 41125, Modena, Italy.
- Institute of Nanotechnology - CNR NANOTEC, Campus Ecotekne, Via Monteroni, 73100, Lecce, Italy.
| | - Cinzia Citti
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, 41125, Modena, Italy.
- Institute of Nanotechnology - CNR NANOTEC, Campus Ecotekne, Via Monteroni, 73100, Lecce, Italy.
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Graziano S, Varì MR, Pichini S, Busardò FP, Cassano T, Di Trana A. Hexahydrocannabinol Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Analysis: The First Evidence for a Recent New Psychoactive Substance. Curr Neuropharmacol 2023; 21:2424-2430. [PMID: 37357519 PMCID: PMC10616920 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x21666230623104624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND During the last two years, hexahydrocannabinol (HHC), the hydrogenated derivative of tetrahydrocannabinol has been freely sold by internet websites as a "legal" replacement to THC and cannabis in a range of highly attractive branded and unbranded products, some of which are sold as "legal highs". Potentially, there could be a large demand for HHC products by individuals in Europe and internationally. METHODS Studies reporting HHC pharmacology, toxicology and analysis were identified from Pubmed and Scopus databases, and official international organizations' websites were considered. RESULTS HHC showed the effects of the typical cannabinoid on the central nervous system, with lower potency than Δ9-THC. A few studies highlighted that 9(R)-HHC is more potent than 9(S)-HHC. This molecule showed an affinity for cannabinoid receptor CB1 both in vitro and in vivo, suggesting a possible therapeutic effect in several pathologies. However, the affinity for the CB1 receptor suggests a possible addiction potential, inducing the users to misuse it. Since actual intoxication cases have not yet been reported, the HHC harmful potential was not described, probably due to the lack of effective analytical methods to detect HHC in biological matrices. Conversely, different analytical assays were developed and validated to separate HHC epimers in natural and non-natural sources. CONCLUSION Similarly to other NPS, the HHC represents a cheaper alternative to the controlled Δ9-THC. Its monitoring is a crucial challenge for toxicological and forensic purposes. To this concern, it is essential to further investigate HHC to support health providers in the identification of related intoxications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Graziano
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Rosaria Varì
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Simona Pichini
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Department of Excellence-Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
| | - Tommaso Cassano
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Foggia, Via Luigi Pinto, c/o Policlinico “Riuniti” di Foggia, 71122, Foggia, Italy
| | - Annagiulia Di Trana
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161, Rome, Italy
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Aguillón AR, Leão RAC, Miranda LSM, de Souza ROMA. Cannabidiol Discovery and Synthesis-a Target-Oriented Analysis in Drug Production Processes. Chemistry 2021; 27:5577-5600. [PMID: 32780909 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202002887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The current state of evidence and recommendations for cannabidiol (CBD) and its health effects change the legal landscape and aim to destigmatize its phytotherapeutic research. Recently, some countries have included CBD as an antiepileptic product for compassionate use in children with refractory epilepsy. The growing demand for CBD has led to the need for high-purity cannabinoids on the emerging market. The discovery and development of approaches toward CBD synthesis have arisen from the successful extraction of Cannabis plants for cannabinoid fermentation in brewer's yeast. To understand different contributions to the design and enhancement of the synthesis of CBD and its key intermediates, a detailed analysis of the history behind cannabinoid compounds and their optimization is provided herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anderson R Aguillón
- Biocatalysis and Organic Synthesis Group, Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-909, Brazil
| | - Raquel A C Leão
- Biocatalysis and Organic Synthesis Group, Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-909, Brazil.,Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, 21941-170, CEP, 21941-910, Brazil
| | - Leandro S M Miranda
- Biocatalysis and Organic Synthesis Group, Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-909, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo O M A de Souza
- Biocatalysis and Organic Synthesis Group, Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-909, Brazil.,Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, 21941-170, CEP, 21941-910, Brazil
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Abstract
AbstractStudies on cannabinoids that predate the identification of ∆9-THC as the intoxicating constituents of recreational cannabis by Raphael Mechoulam in 1964 are reviewed, critically analyzing the controversies and faux pas that have characterized the early research in this area. Significant contributions to the elucidation of the signature molecular scaffold of cannabinoids were provided by some of the finest organic chemists of their generation, like Roger Adams and the Nobel laureate Alexander Todd, and important studies of preeminent scientists like Robert Sidney Cahn and František Šantavý also deserve mentioning. The results of these studies include the structure elucidation of cannabinol (2a), and the preliminary structure elucidation of cannabidiol (CBD, 3a) and various semi-synthetic tetrahydrocannabinols (THCs). A comparative analysis of the contributions to the area by Adams and Todd highlights the transition between two generations of organic chemists, and the profound influence that the development of chromatographic methods of purification and of spectroscopic techniques of structure elucidation have played on the development of organic chemistry.
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Filer CN. Minnesota wild hemp: a crucial botanical source in early cannabinoid discovery. J Cannabis Res 2020; 2:25. [PMID: 33526126 PMCID: PMC7819329 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-020-00031-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Renewed and sustained Cannabis chemistry exploration was initiated by Roger Adams at the University of Illinois Chemistry Department with cooperation from the Treasury Department Narcotics Laboratory in the early 1940’s. This partnership and time investment by both parties made practical sense. Adams was able to explore natural products chemistry and the Narcotics Laboratory began to clarify the chemistry mysteries of Cannabis. Minnesota wild hemp, often viewed as just a roadside weed, was employed as the critical botanical source. Based on its widespread cultivation during World War II, this was also a very pragmatic decision. Although the unique Illinois – Washington D. C. collaboration lasted only a few short years (1939–1942), the stunning results included the isolation and extensive characterization of cannabidiol, the structure elucidation and total synthesis of cannabinol as well as the identification of the tetrahydrocannabinol structure as an intoxicating pharmacophore. Furthermore, this research well prepared many junior chemists for prolific careers in both academia as well as industry, inspired the discoveries of later Cannabis investigators and also provided a successful model of a productive academic-government partnership.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crist N Filer
- PerkinElmer Health Sciences Inc., 940 Winter Street, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA. .,549 Albany St., Boston, MA, 02118, USA.
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9
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Banister SD, Connor M. The Chemistry and Pharmacology of Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists as New Psychoactive Substances: Origins. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2018; 252:165-190. [PMID: 29980914 DOI: 10.1007/164_2018_143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) have proliferated as new psychoactive substances (NPS) over the past decade. Relative to other classes of NPS, SCRAs are structurally heterogeneous; however, most SCRAs act as potent, high-efficacy agonists of cannabinoid type 1 and type 2 receptors (CB1 and CB2, respectively). Characterization of the pharmacology and toxicology of these substances is hindered by the dynamic nature of the SCRA marketplace. Beyond basic pharmacological profiling at CB1 and CB2 receptors, very little is known about the acute or chronic effects of SCRAs. Many of the effects of SCRAs are qualitatively similar to those of the Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) found in cannabis. However, unlike Δ9-THC, SCRAs are frequently associated with serious adverse effects, including cardiotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and death. This chapter will provide an overview of the structure and function of the primary target for SCRAs, the CB1 receptor, and survey the structure-activity relationships of the historical SCRAs that served as templates for the earliest generations of NPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel D Banister
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia.
| | - Mark Connor
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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10
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Synthesis of Phytocannabinoids. PROGRESS IN THE CHEMISTRY OF ORGANIC NATURAL PRODUCTS 2017; 103:37-59. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-45541-9_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
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Rohleder C, Müller JK, Lange B, Leweke FM. Cannabidiol as a Potential New Type of an Antipsychotic. A Critical Review of the Evidence. Front Pharmacol 2016; 7:422. [PMID: 27877130 PMCID: PMC5099166 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2016.00422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
There is urgent need for the development of mechanistically different and less side-effect prone antipsychotic compounds. The endocannabinoid system has been suggested to represent a potential new target in this indication. While the chronic use of cannabis itself has been considered a risk factor contributing to the development of schizophrenia, triggered by the phytocannabinoid delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), cannabidiol, the second most important phytocannabinoid, appears to have no psychotomimetic potential. Although, results from animal studies are inconsistent to a certain extent and seem to depend on behavioral paradigms, treatment duration and experimental conditions applied, cannabidiol has shown antipsychotic properties in both rodents and rhesus monkeys. After some individual treatment attempts, the first randomized, double-blind controlled clinical trial demonstrated that in acute schizophrenia cannabidiol exerts antipsychotic properties comparable to the antipsychotic drug amisulpride while being accompanied by a superior, placebo-like side effect profile. As the clinical improvement by cannabidiol was significantly associated with elevated anandamide levels, it appears likely that its antipsychotic action is based on mechanisms associated with increased anandamide concentrations. Although, a plethora of mechanisms of action has been suggested, their potential relevance for the antipsychotic effects of cannabidiol still needs to be investigated. The clarification of these mechanisms as well as the establishment of cannabidiol’s antipsychotic efficacy and its hopefully benign side-effect profile remains the subject of a number of previously started clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathrin Rohleder
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim Germany
| | - Juliane K Müller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim Germany
| | - Bettina Lange
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim Germany
| | - F M Leweke
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim Germany
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12
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Hanus LO. Pharmacological and therapeutic secrets of plant and brain (endo)cannabinoids. Med Res Rev 2009; 29:213-71. [PMID: 18777572 DOI: 10.1002/med.20135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Research on the chemistry and pharmacology of cannabinoids and endocannabinoids has reached enormous proportions, with approximately 15,000 articles on Cannabis sativa L. and cannabinoids and over 2,000 articles on endocannabinoids. The present review deals with the history of the Cannabis sativa L. plant, its uses, constituent compounds and their biogeneses, and similarity to compounds from Radula spp. In addition, details of the pharmacology of natural cannabinoids, as well as synthetic agonists and antagonists are presented. Finally, details regarding the pioneering isolation of the endocannabinoid anandamide, as well as the pharmacology and potential therapeutic uses of endocannabinoid congeners are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lumír Ondrej Hanus
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Products, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel.
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13
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Affiliation(s)
- Lumír O Hanus
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Products, School of Pharmacy, 12065, Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91120,
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14
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Seth R, Sinha S. Chemistry and pharmacology of cannabis. PROGRESS IN DRUG RESEARCH. FORTSCHRITTE DER ARZNEIMITTELFORSCHUNG. PROGRES DES RECHERCHES PHARMACEUTIQUES 1991; 36:71-115. [PMID: 1876710 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-0348-7136-5_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R Seth
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India
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15
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Mole ML, Turner CE. Phytochemical screening of Cannabis sativa L. I. Constituents of an Indian variant. J Pharm Sci 1974; 63:154-6. [PMID: 4811277 DOI: 10.1002/jps.2600630144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Korte F, Hackel E, Sieper H. Zur chemischen Klassifizierung von Pflanzen, XXVI (Haschisch, V). Synthese eines Cannabidiol-dimethyläthers. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1965. [DOI: 10.1002/jlac.19656850113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Mechoulam R, Gaoni Y. Hashish. IV. The isolation and structure of cannabinolic cannabidiolic and cannabigerolic acids. Tetrahedron 1965; 21:1223-9. [PMID: 5879350 DOI: 10.1016/0040-4020(65)80064-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Cheronis ND. Tentative and rigorous proof in the identification of organic compounds and application of these concepts to the detection of the active principles of marihuana. Microchem J 1960. [DOI: 10.1016/0026-265x(60)90036-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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