Effect of Chemical Oxidation on the Self-Assembly of Organometallic Block Copolymers

Polyferrocenylsilanes: synthesis, properties, and applications

This comprehensive review covers polyferrocenylsilanes (PFSs), a well-established, readily accessible class of main chain organosilicon metallopolymer. The focus is on the recent advances involving PFS homopolymers and block copolymers and the article covers the synthesis, properties, and applications of these fascinating materials.

Influence of self-assembling redox mediators on charge transfer at hydrophobic electrodes

We report an investigation of the influence of reversible self-assembly of amphiphilic redox-mediators on interfacial charge transfer at chemically functionalized electrodes. Specifically, we employed (11-ferrocenylundecyl)-trimethylammonium bromide (FTMA) as a model self-assembling redox mediator and alkanethiol-modified gold films as hydrophobic electrodes. By performing cyclic voltammetry (CV, 10 mV/s) in aqueous solutions containing FTMA above its critical micellar concentration (CMC), we measured anodic (Ia) and cathodic (Ic) peak current densities of 18 ± 3 and 1.1 ± 0.1 μA/cm(2), respectively, revealing substantial current rectification (Ia/Ic= 17) at the hydrophobic electrodes. In contrast, hydroxymethyl ferrocene (a non-self-assembling redox mediator) at hydrophobic electrodes and FTMA at bare gold electrodes, yielded relatively low levels of rectification (Ia/Ic= 1.7 and 2.3, respectively). Scan-rate-dependent measurements revealed Ia of FTMA to arise largely from the diffusion of FTMA from bulk solution to the hydrophobic electrode whereas Ic was dominated by adsorbed FTMA, leading to the proposal that current rectification observed with FTMA is mediated by interfacial assemblies of reduced FTMA that block access of oxidized FTMA to the hydrophobic electrode. Support for this proposal was obtained by using atomic force microscopy and quartz crystal microbalance measurements to confirm the existence of interfacial assemblies of reduced FTMA (1.56 ± 0.2 molecules/nm(2)). Additional characterization of a mixed surfactant system containing FTMA and dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide (DTAB) revealed that interfacial assemblies of DTAB also block access of oxidized FTMA to hydrophobic electrodes; this system exhibited Ia/Ic > 80. These results and others reported in this paper suggest that current rectification occurs in this system because oxidized FTMA does not mix with interfacial assemblies of reduced FTMA or DTAB formed at hydrophobic electrodes. More broadly, these results show that self-assembling redox mediators, when combined with chemically functionalized electrodes, offer the basis of new principles for controlling charge transfer at electrode/solution interfaces.

Morphology-Conductivity Relationship of Single-Ion-Conducting Block Copolymer Electrolytes for Lithium Batteries

A significant limitation of rechargeable lithium-ion batteries arises because most of the ionic current is carried by the anion, the ion that does not participate in energy-producing reactions. Single-ion-conducting block copolymer electrolytes, wherein all of the current is carried by the lithium cations, have the potential to dramatically improve battery performance. The relationship between ionic conductivity and morphology of single-ion-conducting poly(ethylene oxide)-b-polystyrenesulfonyllithium(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (PEO-PSLiTFSI) diblock copolymers was studied by small-angle X-ray scattering and ac impedance spectroscopy. At low temperatures, an ordered lamellar phase is obtained, and the "mobile" lithium ions are trapped in the form of ionic clusters in the glassy polystyrene-rich microphase. An increase in temperature results in a thermodynamic transition to a disordered phase. Above this transition temperature, the lithium ions are released from the clusters, and ionic conductivity increases by several orders of magnitude. This morphology-conductivity relationship is very different from all previously published data on published electrolytes. The ability to design electrolytes wherein most of the current is carried by the lithium ions, to sequester them in nonconducting domains and release them when necessary, has the potential to enable new strategies for controlling the charge-discharge characteristics of rechargeable lithium batteries.

Redox-responsive organometallic microgel particles prepared from poly(ferrocenylsilane)s generated using microfluidics

We describe a novel and versatile method for the fabrication of poly(ferrocenylsilane) (PFS) based microspheres using microfluidics.

Redox-active, organometallic surface-relief gratings from azobenzene-containing polyferrocenylsilane block copolymers

Organometallic gratings: the ionic self-assembly of metal-containing block-copolymer polyelectrolytes and azobenzene chromophores is exploited for the efficient production of stable photo-induced surface-relief gratings. We show that feature sizes can be tuned using simple redox chemistry, and that the chromophores can be removed during plasma treatment to yield ceramic-based optical materials.

Nanostructured magnetic thin films from organometallic block copolymers: pyrolysis of self-assembled polystyrene-block-poly(ferrocenylethylmethylsilane)

The pyrolysis of cylinder-forming samples of the diblock copolymer polystyrene-block-poly(ferrocenylethylmethylsilane) (PS-b-PFEMS) in bulk and in thin films has confirmed that these materials are useful for the generation of semi-ordered arrays of C/SiC ceramics containing Fe nanoparticles which are derived from the organometallic domains. In many cases, the ceramic mass yields were predictable and produced ceramics bearing a monomodal distribution of iron nanoparticles due to the nanoscaled structure of the preceramic PFEMS domains. The pyrolysis of thin films stabilized by cross-linking the PS domains with UV light demonstrated high areal yields, improved shape retention, and the presence of cylinder-centered magnetic nanoparticles.

Polyferrocenylsilane-Based Polymer Systems

The study of metallopolymers has blossomed into a mature field over the last few decades. Especially, polyferrocenylsilane (PFS) chemistry has taken a tremendous leap and continues to raise intense interest. Since the discovery of thermal ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of sila[1]ferrocenophanes, PFSs have been also accessed by anionic, cationic, transition-metal-catalyzed, and photolytic anionic ROP methodologies. A plethora of synthetic strategies have been devised, enabling access to a wide variety of copolymers, polyelectrolytes, and nanostructured materials. The distinctive physical properties and functions of many PFS-based polymers have been explored, leading to their apt exploitation in technical applications. Therefore, it is conceivable that PFS-related platforms might be indispensable nano-objects in the near future, as they stand on the verge of a new generation of sophisticated materials.

Electrochemically Controlled Self-Assembly of an Organometallic Block Copolymer

A new means of controlling the order-disorder transition of block copolymers is presented. By applying small electrical potentials (2 V/cm) to disordered solutions of an organometallic block copolymer, oriented ordered grains were obtained near the positive electrode. After reversing the electrical bias on the system, the ordered grains disappeared, and new, oriented, ordered regions were formed at the opposite electrode. Our work establishes the concept of electrochemical self-assembly for controlling order formation in block copolymers.

Photocontrolled living polymerizations

Living polymerizations involve the creation of polymer chains without significant irreversible chain transfer or chain termination. Such processes are widely used to access well-defined macromolecular materials with controlled architectures, such as block and star polymers. Although this concept was first realized for anionic polymerizations in the 1950s, many key recent advances have been made, most notably in the area of radical polymerization. Here, we report a living photopolymerization that involves photoexcited monomers. Exposure of metal-containing ferrocenophane monomers to Pyrex-filtered light from a mercury lamp (lambda>310 nm) or to bright sunlight in the presence of an anionic initiator leads to living polymerizations, in which the conversion and molecular weight of the resulting polymer can be controlled by the irradiation time. Photoirradiation selectively weakens the iron-cyclopentadienyl bond in the monomer, allowing the use of moderately basic and highly functional-group-tolerant initiators. The polymerization proceeds through attack of the initiator and propagating anion on the iron atom of the photoexcited monomer and, remarkably, the polymerization rate decreases with increasing temperature. Block copolymer formation is possible when the light source is alternately switched on and off in between sequential addition of different monomers, providing unprecedented, photocontrolled access to new types of functional polymers.