1
|
Martinez V, Stolar T, Karadeniz B, Brekalo I, Užarević K. Advancing mechanochemical synthesis by combining milling with different energy sources. Nat Rev Chem 2022; 7:51-65. [PMID: 37117822 DOI: 10.1038/s41570-022-00442-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Owing to its efficiency and unique reactivity, mechanochemical processing of bulk solids has developed into a powerful tool for the synthesis and transformation of various classes of materials. Nevertheless, mechanochemistry is primarily based on simple techniques, such as milling in comminution devices. Recently, mechanochemical reactivity has started being combined with other energy sources commonly used in solution-based chemistry. Milling under controlled temperature, light irradiation, sound agitation or electrical impulses in newly developed experimental setups has led to reactions not achievable by conventional mechanochemical processing. This Perspective describes these unique reactivities and the advances in equipment tailored to synthetic mechanochemistry. These techniques - thermo-mechanochemistry, sono-mechanochemistry, electro-mechanochemistry and photo-mechanochemistry - represent a notable advance in modern mechanochemistry and herald a new level of solid-state reactivity: mechanochemistry 2.0.
Collapse
|
2
|
Belenguer AM, Michalchuk AAL, Lampronti GI, Sanders JKM. Using Solid Catalysts in Disulfide-Based Dynamic Combinatorial Solution- and Mechanochemistry. CHEMSUSCHEM 2022; 15:e202102416. [PMID: 34863026 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202102416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
It was shown for the first time that solid amines can act as catalysts for disulfide-based dynamic combinatorial chemistry (DCC) by ball mill grinding. The mechanochemical equilibrium for the two disulfide reactions studied was reached within 1-3 h using ten different amine catalysts. This contrasts with the weeks to months to achieve solution equilibrium for most solid amine catalysts at 2 %mol mol-1 concentration in a 2 mMolar disulfide dynamic combinatorial library in a suitable solvent. The final mechanochemical equilibrium was independent of the catalyst used but varied with other ball mill grinding factors such as the presence of traces of solvent. The different efficiencies of the amines tested were discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana M Belenguer
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, United Kingdom
| | - Adam A L Michalchuk
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Richard-Willstätter Str. 11, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Giulio I Lampronti
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, United Kingdom
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EQ, United Kingdom
| | - Jeremy K M Sanders
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Belenguer AM, Lampronti GI, Michalchuk AAL, Emmerling F, Sanders JKM. Quantitative reversible one pot interconversion of three crystalline polymorphs by ball mill grinding. CrystEngComm 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2ce00393g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate here using a disulfide system the first example of reversible, selective, and quantitative transformation between three crystalline polymorphs by ball mill grinding.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana M. Belenguer
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Giulio I. Lampronti
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EQ, UK
| | - Adam A. L. Michalchuk
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Richard-Willstätter-Str. 11, D-12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Franziska Emmerling
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Richard-Willstätter-Str. 11, D-12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jeremy K. M. Sanders
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Jiang G, Hai Y, Ye H, You L. Dynamic Covalent Chemistry Constrained Diphenylethenes: Control over Reactivity and Luminescence in both Solution and Solid State. Org Chem Front 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2qo00057a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Diarylethenes (DAEs) are an important class of building blocks in chemistry and materials science, and hence, their modulation and functionalization are of critical significance. Here we demonstrate a general strategy...
Collapse
|
5
|
Belenguer AM, Lampronti GI, Sanders JKM. Implications of Thermodynamic Control: Dynamic Equilibrium Under Ball Mill Grinding Conditions. Isr J Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ijch.202100090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ana M. Belenguer
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry University of Cambridge Lensfield Road Cambridge CB2 1EW United Kingdom
| | - Giulio I. Lampronti
- Department of Earth Sciences University of Cambridge Downing Street Cambridge CB2 3EQ United Kingdom
| | - Jeremy K. M. Sanders
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry University of Cambridge Lensfield Road Cambridge CB2 1EW United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Lukin S, Užarević K, Halasz I. Raman spectroscopy for real-time and in situ monitoring of mechanochemical milling reactions. Nat Protoc 2021; 16:3492-3521. [PMID: 34089023 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-021-00545-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Solid-state milling has emerged as an alternative, sustainable approach for preparing virtually all classes of compounds and materials. In situ reaction monitoring is essential to understanding the kinetics and mechanisms of these reactions, but it has proved difficult to use standard analytical techniques to analyze the contents of the closed, rapidly moving reaction chamber (jar). Monitoring by Raman spectroscopy is an attractive choice, because it allows uninterrupted data collection from the outside of a translucent milling jar. It complements the already established in situ monitoring based on powder X-ray diffraction, which has limited accessibility to the wider research community, because it requires a synchrotron X-ray source. The Raman spectroscopy monitoring setup used in this protocol consists of an affordable, small portable spectrometer, a laser source and a Raman probe. Translucent reaction jars, most commonly made from a plastic material, enable interaction of the laser beam with the solid sample residing inside the closed reaction jar and collection of Raman-scattered photons while the ball mill is in operation. Acquired Raman spectra are analyzed using commercial or open-source software for data analysis (e.g., MATLAB, Octave, Python, R). Plotting the Raman spectra versus time enables qualitative analysis of reaction paths. This is demonstrated for an example reaction: the formation in the solid state of a cocrystal between nicotinamide and salicylic acid. A more rigorous data analysis can be achieved using multivariate analysis.
Collapse
|
7
|
Sobczak S, Ratajczyk P, Katrusiak A. High-pressure Nucleation of Low-Density Polymorphs*. Chemistry 2021; 27:7069-7073. [PMID: 33506549 PMCID: PMC8252116 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202005121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
New polymorphs β and γ of bis-3-nitrophenyl disulphide, crystallized above 0.3 GPa, are less dense than the ambient-pressure polymorph α. This counterintuitive density relation results from the high-entropy nucleation and subsequent kinetic crystallization. The work performed by pressure compensates the high entropy and temperature product, substantiated in varied conformers and increased chemical potential. Pressure-increased viscosity promotes the kinetic polymorphs, in accordance with empirical Ostwald's rule of stages. It contrasts to mechanochemical techniques, favouring high-density polymorphs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Szymon Sobczak
- Department of Materials ChemistryFaculty of ChemistryAdam Mickiewicz UniversityUniwersytetu Poznańskiego 861-614PoznańPoland
| | - Paulina Ratajczyk
- Department of Materials ChemistryFaculty of ChemistryAdam Mickiewicz UniversityUniwersytetu Poznańskiego 861-614PoznańPoland
| | - Andrzej Katrusiak
- Department of Materials ChemistryFaculty of ChemistryAdam Mickiewicz UniversityUniwersytetu Poznańskiego 861-614PoznańPoland
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Frisch H, Mundsinger K, Poad BLJ, Blanksby SJ, Barner-Kowollik C. Wavelength-gated photoreversible polymerization and topology control. Chem Sci 2020; 11:2834-2842. [PMID: 32206267 PMCID: PMC7069517 DOI: 10.1039/c9sc05381f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
We exploit the wavelength dependence of [2 + 2] photocycloadditions and -reversions of styrylpyrene to exert unprecedented control over the photoreversible polymerization and topology of telechelic building blocks. Blue light (λ max = 460 nm) initiates a catalyst-free polymerization yielding high molar mass polymers (M n = 60 000 g mol-1), which are stable at wavelengths exceeding 430 nm, yet highly responsive to shorter wavelengths. UVB irradiation (λ max = 330 nm) induces a rapid depolymerization affording linear oligomers, whereas violet light (λ max = 410 nm) generates cyclic entities. Thus, different colors of light allow switching between a depolymerization that either proceeds through cyclic or linear topologies. The light-controlled topology formation was evidenced by correlation of mass spectrometry (MS) with size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and ion mobility data. Critically, the color-guided topology control was also possible with ambient laboratory light affording cyclic oligomers, while sunlight activated the linear depolymerization pathway. These findings suggest that light not only induces polymerization and depolymerization but that its color can control the topological outcomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Frisch
- Centre for Materials Science , School of Chemistry and Physics , Queensland University of Technology (QUT) , 2 George Street , Brisbane , QLD 4000 , Australia .
| | - Kai Mundsinger
- Centre for Materials Science , School of Chemistry and Physics , Queensland University of Technology (QUT) , 2 George Street , Brisbane , QLD 4000 , Australia .
| | - Berwyck L J Poad
- Central Analytical Research Facility , Institute for Future Environments , Queensland University of Technology (QUT) , 2 George Street , Brisbane , QLD 4000 , Australia
| | - Stephen J Blanksby
- Central Analytical Research Facility , Institute for Future Environments , Queensland University of Technology (QUT) , 2 George Street , Brisbane , QLD 4000 , Australia
| | - Christopher Barner-Kowollik
- Centre for Materials Science , School of Chemistry and Physics , Queensland University of Technology (QUT) , 2 George Street , Brisbane , QLD 4000 , Australia .
- Macromolecular Architectures , Institut für Technische Chemie und Polymerchemie , Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) , Engesserstrasse 18 , 76131 Karlsruhe , Germany
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Budny-Godlewski K, Justyniak I, Leszczyński MK, Lewiński J. Mechanochemical and slow-chemistry radical transformations: a case of diorganozinc compounds and TEMPO. Chem Sci 2019; 10:7149-7155. [PMID: 31588281 PMCID: PMC6686643 DOI: 10.1039/c9sc01396b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
From the green chemistry perspective, molecular solid-state transformations conducted under mild conditions are of great interest and desirability. However, research in this area lacked popularity in the previous century, and thus progressed slowly. In particular, the application of radical reactions in solid-state chemistry has been hampered by several long-standing challenges that are intrinsically associated with the apparent unpredictable nature of radical chemistry. We present a comparative study of model mechanochemical, slow-chemistry and solution radical reactions between TEMPO and homoleptic organozinc compounds (i.e., di-tert-butylzinc and diphenylzinc). In the case of the tBu2Zn/TEMPO reaction system only a dimeric diamagnetic complex [tBuZn(μ-TEMPO*)]2 is obtained in yields slightly varying with the method chosen. In contrast, when TEMPO is mixed with diphenylzinc in a 2 : 1 molar ratio a novel paramagnetic Lewis acid-base adduct [[Ph2Zn(η1-TEMPO)]·TEMPO] is isolated in high yields regardless of the applied methodology. This adduct is also formed in the slow-chemistry process when TEMPO is gently mixed with Ph2Zn in a 1 : 1 molar ratio and left for two weeks at ambient temperature. Within the next week the reaction mixture gives in high yield a diamagnetic dinuclear compound [PhZn(μ-TEMPO*)][PhZn(μ2-η1:η1-TEMPO*)] and biphenyl. The analogous reaction conducted in toluene results in a much lower conversion rate. The reported results open up a new horizon in molecular solid-state radical transformations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Budny-Godlewski
- Faculty of Chemistry , Warsaw University of Technology , Noakowskiego 3 , 00-664 Warsaw , Poland . ; ; Tel: +48 22 2347315
| | - Iwona Justyniak
- Institute of Physical Chemistry , Polish Academy of Sciences , Kasprzaka 44/52 , 01-224 Warsaw , Poland
| | - Michał K Leszczyński
- Institute of Physical Chemistry , Polish Academy of Sciences , Kasprzaka 44/52 , 01-224 Warsaw , Poland
| | - Janusz Lewiński
- Faculty of Chemistry , Warsaw University of Technology , Noakowskiego 3 , 00-664 Warsaw , Poland . ; ; Tel: +48 22 2347315
- Institute of Physical Chemistry , Polish Academy of Sciences , Kasprzaka 44/52 , 01-224 Warsaw , Poland
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Osypenko A, Dhers S, Lehn JM. Pattern Generation and Information Transfer through a Liquid/Liquid Interface in 3D Constitutional Dynamic Networks of Imine Ligands in Response to Metal Cation Effectors. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 141:12724-12737. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b05438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Artem Osypenko
- Laboratoire de Chimie Supramoléculaire, Institut de Science et d’Ingénierie Supramoléculaires (ISIS), Université de Strasbourg, 8 allée Gaspard Monge, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Sébastien Dhers
- Laboratoire de Chimie Supramoléculaire, Institut de Science et d’Ingénierie Supramoléculaires (ISIS), Université de Strasbourg, 8 allée Gaspard Monge, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Jean-Marie Lehn
- Laboratoire de Chimie Supramoléculaire, Institut de Science et d’Ingénierie Supramoléculaires (ISIS), Université de Strasbourg, 8 allée Gaspard Monge, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Belenguer AM, Michalchuk AAL, Lampronti GI, Sanders JKM. Understanding the unexpected effect of frequency on the kinetics of a covalent reaction under ball-milling conditions. Beilstein J Org Chem 2019; 15:1226-1235. [PMID: 31293670 PMCID: PMC6604707 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.15.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
We here explore how ball-mill-grinding frequency affects the kinetics of a disulfide exchange reaction. Our kinetic data show that the reaction progress is similar at all the frequencies studied (15-30 Hz), including a significant induction time before the nucleation and growth process starts. This indicates that to start the reaction an initial energy accumulation is necessary. Other than mixing, the energy supplied by the mechanical treatment has two effects: (i) reducing the crystal size and (ii) creating defects in the structure. The crystal-breaking process is likely to be dominant at first becoming less important later in the process when the energy supplied is stored at the molecular level as local crystal defects. This accumulation is taken here to be the rate-determining step. We suggest that the local defects accumulate preferentially at or near the crystal surface. Since the total area increases exponentially when the crystal size is reduced by the crystal-breaking process, this can further explain the exponential dependence of the onset time on the milling frequency.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana M Belenguer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Adam A L Michalchuk
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Richard-Willstätter Str. 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Giulio I Lampronti
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EQ, UK
| | - Jeremy K M Sanders
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Lukin S, Tireli M, Stolar T, Barišić D, Blanco MV, di Michiel M, Užarević K, Halasz I. Isotope Labeling Reveals Fast Atomic and Molecular Exchange in Mechanochemical Milling Reactions. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 141:1212-1216. [PMID: 30608669 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.8b12149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Using tandem in situ monitoring and isotope-labeled solids, we reveal that mechanochemical ball-milling overcomes inherently slow solid-state diffusion through continuous comminution and growth of milled particles. This process occurs with or without a net chemical reaction and also occurs between solids and liquid additives that can be practically used for highly efficient deuterium labeling of solids. The presented findings reveal a fundamental aspect of milling reactions and also delineate a methodology that should be considered in the study of mechanochemical reaction mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stipe Lukin
- Division of Physical Chemistry , Ruđ̵er Bošković Institute , Bijenička 54 , 10000 Zagreb , Croatia
| | - Martina Tireli
- Division of Physical Chemistry , Ruđ̵er Bošković Institute , Bijenička 54 , 10000 Zagreb , Croatia
| | - Tomislav Stolar
- Division of Physical Chemistry , Ruđ̵er Bošković Institute , Bijenička 54 , 10000 Zagreb , Croatia
| | - Dajana Barišić
- Division of Physical Chemistry , Ruđ̵er Bošković Institute , Bijenička 54 , 10000 Zagreb , Croatia
| | - Maria Valeria Blanco
- ESRF - the European Synchrotron , 71 Avenue des Martyrs , 38000 Grenoble , France
| | - Marco di Michiel
- ESRF - the European Synchrotron , 71 Avenue des Martyrs , 38000 Grenoble , France
| | - Krunoslav Užarević
- Division of Physical Chemistry , Ruđ̵er Bošković Institute , Bijenička 54 , 10000 Zagreb , Croatia
| | - Ivan Halasz
- Division of Physical Chemistry , Ruđ̵er Bošković Institute , Bijenička 54 , 10000 Zagreb , Croatia
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Belenguer AM, Cruz-Cabeza AJ, Lampronti GI, Sanders JKM. On the prevalence of smooth polymorphs at the nanoscale: implications for pharmaceuticals. CrystEngComm 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c8ce02098a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Ball mill neat grinding leads to smoother whereas liquid assisted grinding leads to rougher pharmaceutical forms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana M. Belenguer
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Cambridge
- Cambridge CB2 1EW
- UK
| | - Aurora J. Cruz-Cabeza
- School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science
- The University of Manchester
- Manchester
- UK
- Astra Zeneca
| | - Giulio I. Lampronti
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Cambridge
- Cambridge CB2 1EW
- UK
- Department of Earth Sciences
| | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Belenguer AM, Lampronti GI, De Mitri N, Driver M, Hunter CA, Sanders JKM. Understanding the Influence of Surface Solvation and Structure on Polymorph Stability: A Combined Mechanochemical and Theoretical Approach. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:17051-17059. [PMID: 30371073 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.8b08549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We explore the effect of solvent concentration on the thermodynamic stability of two polymorphs of a 1:1 cocrystal of theophylline and benzamide subjected to ball-mill liquid assisted grinding (LAG) and we investigate how this can be related to surface solvent solvation phenomena. In this system, most stable bulk polymorph form II converts to metastable bulk polymorph form I upon neat grinding (NG), while form I can fully or partially transform into form II under LAG conditions, depending on the amount of solvent used. Careful and strict experimental procedures were designed to achieve polymorph equilibrium under ball-mill LAG conditions for 16 different solvents. This allowed us to determine 16 equilibrium polymorph concentration curves as a function of solvent concentration. Ex-situ powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) was used to monitor the polymorph concentration and crystallite size. The surface site interactions point (SSIP) description of noncovalent interactions was used in conjunction with the SSIMPLE method for calculating solvation energies to determine which functional groups are more or less exposed on the polymorph crystal surfaces. Our results demonstrate that (i) ball-mill LAG equilibrium curves can be successfully achieved experimentally for a cocrystal system; (ii) the equilibrium curves vary from solvent to solvent in onset values and slopes, thus confirming the generality of the interconversion phenomenon that we interpret here in terms of cooperativity; (iii) the concentration required for a switch in polymorphic outcome is dependent on the nature of the solvent; (iv) the SSIP results indicate that the theophylline π-system face is more exposed on the surface of form I while the theophylline N-methyl groups are more exposed in form II; and (v) for some solvents, form II has a significantly smaller crystal size at equilibrium than form I in the investigated solvent concentration range. Therefore, the free energy of the 1:1 cocrystal of theophylline and benzamide polymorphs studied here must be affected by surface solvation under ball-mill LAG conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana M Belenguer
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , U.K
| | - Giulio I Lampronti
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , U.K.,Department of Earth Sciences , University of Cambridge , Downing Street , Cambridge CB2 3EQ , U.K
| | - Nicola De Mitri
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , U.K
| | - Mark Driver
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , U.K
| | - Christopher A Hunter
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , U.K
| | - Jeremy K M Sanders
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , U.K
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Enhancement of the stimuli-responsiveness and photo-stability of dynamic diselenide bonds and diselenide-containing polymers by neighboring aromatic groups. POLYMER 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2018.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
16
|
Colacino E, Carta M, Pia G, Porcheddu A, Ricci PC, Delogu F. Processing and Investigation Methods in Mechanochemical Kinetics. ACS OMEGA 2018; 3:9196-9209. [PMID: 31459054 PMCID: PMC6644374 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.8b01431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The present work focuses on the challenges that emerge in connection with the kinetics of mechanically activated transformations. This is an important topics to comprehend to enable the full exploitation of mechanical processing in a broad spectrum of areas related to chemistry and materials science and engineering. Emerging challenges involve a number of facets regarding materials and material properties, working principles of ball mills and milling conditions, and local changes occurring in series in processed materials. Within this context, it is highly desirable to relate the nature and rate of observed mechanochemical transformations to individual collisions and then to the processes induced by mechanical stresses on the molecular scale. Hence, it is necessary to characterize the milling regimes that can establish in ball mills regarding frequency and energy of collisions, map the relationship between milling dynamics and transformation kinetics, and obtain mechanistic information through proper time-resolved investigations in situ. A few specific hints are provided in this respect.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Evelina Colacino
- Institut
des Biomolécules Max Mousseron, Université
de Montpellier, UMR5247 UM-CNRS-ENSCM, Place E. Bataillon, Campus Triolet cc1703, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Maria Carta
- Dipartimento
di Ingegneria Meccanica, Chimica, e dei Materiali, Università degli Studi di Cagliari, via Marengo 2, 09123 Cagliari, Italy
| | - Giorgio Pia
- Dipartimento
di Ingegneria Meccanica, Chimica, e dei Materiali, Università degli Studi di Cagliari, via Marengo 2, 09123 Cagliari, Italy
| | - Andrea Porcheddu
- Dipartimento
di Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche, Università
degli Studi di Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, SS 554 bivio per Sestu, 09042 Monserrato, Italy
| | - Pier Carlo Ricci
- Dipartimento
di Fisica, Università degli Studi
di Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, SS 554 bivio per Sestu, 09042 Monserrato, Italy
| | - Francesco Delogu
- Dipartimento
di Ingegneria Meccanica, Chimica, e dei Materiali, Università degli Studi di Cagliari, via Marengo 2, 09123 Cagliari, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Sobczak S, Drożdż W, Lampronti GI, Belenguer AM, Katrusiak A, Stefankiewicz AR. Dynamic Covalent Chemistry under High-Pressure:A New Route to Disulfide Metathesis. Chemistry 2018; 24:8769-8773. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201801740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Szymon Sobczak
- Faculty of Chemistry; Adam Mickiewicz University; Umultowska 89b 61-614 Poznań Poland
| | - Wojciech Drożdż
- Faculty of Chemistry; Adam Mickiewicz University; Umultowska 89b 61-614 Poznań Poland
- Centre for Advanced Technologies; Adam Mickiewicz University; Umultowska 89c 61-614 Poznań Poland
| | - Giulio I. Lampronti
- Department of Earth Sciences; University of Cambridge; Downing St Cambridge CB2 3EQ UK
- Department of Chemistry; University of Cambridge; Lensfield Road Cambridge CB2 1EW UK
| | - Ana M. Belenguer
- Department of Chemistry; University of Cambridge; Lensfield Road Cambridge CB2 1EW UK
| | - Andrzej Katrusiak
- Faculty of Chemistry; Adam Mickiewicz University; Umultowska 89b 61-614 Poznań Poland
| | - Artur R. Stefankiewicz
- Faculty of Chemistry; Adam Mickiewicz University; Umultowska 89b 61-614 Poznań Poland
- Centre for Advanced Technologies; Adam Mickiewicz University; Umultowska 89c 61-614 Poznań Poland
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Orrillo AG, La-Venia A, Escalante AM, Furlan RLE. Rewiring Chemical Networks Based on Dynamic Dithioacetal and Disulfide Bonds. Chemistry 2018; 24:3141-3146. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201705654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A. Gastón Orrillo
- Instituto de Investigaciones para el Descubrimiento de, Fármacos de Rosario (UNR-CONICET); Ocampo y Esmeralda; 2000 Rosario Argentina
| | - Agustina La-Venia
- Instituto de Química Rosario (CONICET), Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas; Universidad Nacional de Rosario; Suipacha 531 S2002LRK Rosario Argentina
| | - Andrea M. Escalante
- Instituto de Investigaciones para el Descubrimiento de, Fármacos de Rosario (UNR-CONICET); Ocampo y Esmeralda; 2000 Rosario Argentina
| | - Ricardo L. E. Furlan
- Instituto de Investigaciones para el Descubrimiento de, Fármacos de Rosario (UNR-CONICET); Ocampo y Esmeralda; 2000 Rosario Argentina
- Farmacognosia, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas; Universidad Nacional de Rosario; S2002LRK Rosario Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Fischer F, Wenzel KJ, Rademann K, Emmerling F. Quantitative determination of activation energies in mechanochemical reactions. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 18:23320-5. [PMID: 27498986 DOI: 10.1039/c6cp04280e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Mechanochemical reactions often result in 100% yields of single products, making purifying procedures obsolete. Mechanochemistry is also a sustainable and eco-friendly method. The ever increasing interest in this method is contrasted by a lack in mechanistic understanding of the mechanochemical reactivity and selectivity. Recent in situ investigations provided direct insight into formation pathways. However, the currently available theories do not predict temperature T as an influential factor. Here, we report the first determination of an apparent activation energy for a mechanochemical reaction. In a temperature-dependent in situ study the cocrystallisation of ibuprofen and nicotinamide was investigated as a model system. These experiments provide a pivotal step towards a comprehensive understanding of milling reaction mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Fischer
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, R.-Willstätter-Str. 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany. and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, B.-Taylor-Str. 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Klaus-Jürgen Wenzel
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, R.-Willstätter-Str. 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Klaus Rademann
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, R.-Willstätter-Str. 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany. and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, B.-Taylor-Str. 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Franziska Emmerling
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, R.-Willstätter-Str. 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Belenguer AM, Lampronti GI, Sanders JKM. Reliable Mechanochemistry: Protocols for Reproducible Outcomes of Neat and Liquid Assisted Ball-mill Grinding Experiments. J Vis Exp 2018. [PMID: 29443036 DOI: 10.3791/56824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The equilibrium outcomes of ball mill grinding can dramatically change as a function of even tiny variations in the experimental conditions such as the presence of very small amounts of added solvent. To reproducibly and accurately capture this sensitivity, the experimentalist needs to carefully consider every single factor that can affect the ball mill grinding reaction under investigation, from ensuring the grinding jars are clean and dry before use, to accurately adding the stoichiometry of the starting materials, to validating that the delivery of solvent volume is accurate, to ensuring that the interaction between the solvent and the powder is well understood and, if necessary, a specific soaking time is added to the procedure. Preliminary kinetic studies are essential to determine the necessary milling time to achieve equilibrium. Only then can exquisite phase composition curves be obtained as a function of the solvent concentration under ball mill liquid assisted grinding (LAG). By using strict and careful procedures analogous to the ones here presented, such milling equilibrium curves can be obtained for virtually all milling systems. The system we use to demonstrate these procedures is a disulfide exchange reaction starting from the equimolar mixture of two homodimers to obtain at equilibrium quantitative heterodimer. The latter is formed by ball mill grinding as two different polymorphs, Form A and Form B. The ratio R = [Form B] / ([Form A] + [Form B]) at milling equilibrium depends on the nature and concentration of the solvent in the milling jar.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Giulio I Lampronti
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge; Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge;
| | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Fu Q, Xu XK, Liu BK, Guo F. Solid state transformations of different stoichiometric forms of an organic salt formed from 5-sulfosalicylic acid and hexamethylenetetramine upon dehydration and rehydration. CrystEngComm 2018. [DOI: 10.1039/c8ce00022k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The reversible solid state transformations between the diverse forms (e.g. hydrous/anhydrous and different stoichiometries) of a salt formed from 5-sulfosalicylic acid (A) and hexamethylenetetramine (B) have been investigated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Fu
- College of Chemistry
- Liaoning University
- Shenyang 110036
- China
| | - Xi-kun Xu
- College of Chemistry
- Liaoning University
- Shenyang 110036
- China
| | - Bao-kai Liu
- College of Chemistry
- Liaoning University
- Shenyang 110036
- China
| | - Fang Guo
- College of Chemistry
- Liaoning University
- Shenyang 110036
- China
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Garci A, Castor KJ, Fakhoury J, Do JL, Di Trani J, Chidchob P, Stein RS, Mittermaier AK, Friščić T, Sleiman H. Efficient and Rapid Mechanochemical Assembly of Platinum(II) Squares for Guanine Quadruplex Targeting. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:16913-16922. [PMID: 29058892 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b09819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
We present a rapid and efficient method to generate a family of platinum supramolecular square complexes, including previously inaccessible targets, through the use of ball milling mechanochemistry. This one-pot, two-step process occurs in minutes and enables the synthesis of the squares [Pt4(en)4(N∩N)4][CF3SO3]8 (en= ethylenediamine, N∩N = 4,4'-bipyridine derivatives) from commercially available precursor K2PtCl4 in good to excellent yields. In contrast, solution-based assembly requires heating the reagents for weeks and gives lower yields. Mechanistic investigations into this remarkable rate acceleration revealed that solution-based assembly (refluxing for days) results in the formation of large oligomeric side-products that are difficult to break down into the desired squares. On the other hand, ball milling in the solid state is rapid and appears to involve smaller intermediates. We examined the binding of the new supramolecular squares to guanine quadruplexes, including oncogene and telomere-associated DNA and RNA sequences. Sub-micromolar binding affinities were obtained by fluorescence displacement assays (FID) and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), with binding preference to telomere RNA (TERRA) sequences. ITC showed a 1:1 binding stoichiometry of the metallosquare to TERRA, while the stoichiometry was more complex for telomeric quadruplex DNA and a double-stranded DNA control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amine Garci
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University , 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montréal, Québec H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Katherine J Castor
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University , 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montréal, Québec H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Johans Fakhoury
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University , 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montréal, Québec H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Jean-Louis Do
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University , 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montréal, Québec H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Justin Di Trani
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University , 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montréal, Québec H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Pongphak Chidchob
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University , 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montréal, Québec H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Robin S Stein
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University , 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montréal, Québec H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Anthony K Mittermaier
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University , 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montréal, Québec H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Tomislav Friščić
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University , 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montréal, Québec H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Hanadi Sleiman
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University , 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montréal, Québec H3A 0B8, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Lukin S, Stolar T, Tireli M, Blanco MV, Babić D, Friščić T, Užarević K, Halasz I. Tandem In Situ Monitoring for Quantitative Assessment of Mechanochemical Reactions Involving Structurally Unknown Phases. Chemistry 2017. [PMID: 28639258 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201702489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
We report herein quantitative in situ monitoring by simultaneous PXRD and Raman spectroscopy of the mechanochemical reaction between benzoic acid and nicotinamide, affording a rich polymorphic system with four new cocrystal polymorphs, multiple phase transformations, and a variety of reaction pathways. After observing polymorphs by in situ monitoring, we were able to isolate and characterize three of the four polymorphs, most of which are not accessible from solution. Relative stabilities among the isolated polymorphs at ambient conditions were established by slurry experiments. Using two complementary methods for in situ monitoring enabled quantitative assessment and kinetic analysis of each studied mechanochemical reaction, even when involving unknown crystal structures, and short-lived intermediates. In situ Raman monitoring was introduced here also as a standalone laboratory technique for quantitative assessment of mechanochemical reactions and understanding of mechanochemical reactivity. Our results provide an important step toward a complete and high-throughput quantitative approach to mechanochemical reaction kinetics and mechanisms, necessary for the development of the mechanistic framework of milling reactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stipe Lukin
- Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Tomislav Stolar
- Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Martina Tireli
- Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | | | - Darko Babić
- Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Tomislav Friščić
- Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia.,Department of Chemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | | | - Ivan Halasz
- Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Andersen JM, Mack J. Decoupling the Arrhenius equation via mechanochemistry. Chem Sci 2017; 8:5447-5453. [PMID: 28970924 PMCID: PMC5609516 DOI: 10.1039/c7sc00538e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2017] [Accepted: 05/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mechanochemistry continues to reveal new possibilities in chemistry including the opportunity for "greening" reactions. Nevertheless, a clear understanding of the energetic transformations within mechanochemical systems remains elusive. We employed a uniquely modified ball mill and strategically chosen Diels-Alder reactions to evaluate the role of several ball-milling variables. This revealed three different energetic regions that we believe are defining characteristics of most, if not all, mechanochemical reactors. Relative to the locations of a given ball mill's regions, activation energy determines whether a reaction is energetically easy (Region I), challenging (Region II), or unreasonable (Region III) in a given timeframe. It is in Region II, that great sensitivity to mechanochemical conditions such as vial material and oscillation frequency emerge. Our unique modifications granted control of reaction vessel temperature, which in turn allowed control of the locations of Regions I, II, and III for our mill. Taken together, these results suggest envisioning vibratory mills (and likely other mechanochemical methodologies) as molecular-collision facilitating devices that act upon molecules occupying a thermally-derived energy distribution. This unifies ball-milling energetics with solution-reaction energetics via a common tie to the Arrhenius equation, but gives mechanochemistry the unique opportunity to influence either half of the equation. In light of this, we discuss a strategy for translating solvent-based reaction conditions to ball milling conditions. Lastly, we posit that the extra control via frequency factor grants mechanochemistry the potential for greater selectivity than conventional solution reactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joel M Andersen
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cincinnati , 301 Clifton Court , Cincinnati , Ohio 45221-0172 , USA .
| | - James Mack
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cincinnati , 301 Clifton Court , Cincinnati , Ohio 45221-0172 , USA .
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Crocker RD, Hussein MA, Ho J, Nguyen TV. NHC‐Catalyzed Metathesis and Phosphorylation Reactions of Disulfides: Development and Mechanistic Insights. Chemistry 2017; 23:6259-6263. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201700744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Reece D. Crocker
- School of Chemistry University of New South Wales Sydney Australia
| | | | - Junming Ho
- Institute of High Performance Computing Agency for Science Technology and Research Singapore
| | - Thanh V. Nguyen
- School of Chemistry University of New South Wales Sydney Australia
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Affiliation(s)
- José G. Hernández
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 1, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Carsten Bolm
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 1, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Kulla H, Wilke M, Fischer F, Röllig M, Maierhofer C, Emmerling F. Warming up for mechanosynthesis – temperature development in ball mills during synthesis. Chem Commun (Camb) 2017; 53:1664-1667. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cc08950j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
We present a first direct measurement of the temperature during milling combined with in situ Raman spectroscopy monitoring.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Kulla
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing
- Berlin
- Germany
- Department of Chemistry
- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
| | - Manuel Wilke
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing
- Berlin
- Germany
- Department of Chemistry
- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
| | - Franziska Fischer
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing
- Berlin
- Germany
- Department of Chemistry
- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
| | - Mathias Röllig
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing
- Berlin
- Germany
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Ribeiro APC, Fontolan E, Alegria EC, Kopylovich MN, Bertani R, Pombeiro AJ. The influence of multiwalled carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide additives on the catalytic activity of 3d metal catalysts towards 1-phenylethanol oxidation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molcata.2016.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
29
|
Belenguer AM, Lampronti GI, Cruz-Cabeza AJ, Hunter CA, Sanders JKM. Solvation and surface effects on polymorph stabilities at the nanoscale. Chem Sci 2016; 7:6617-6627. [PMID: 28567252 PMCID: PMC5450528 DOI: 10.1039/c6sc03457h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 08/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We explore the effects of particle size and solvent environment on the thermodynamic stability of two pairs of polymorphs subjected to ball-mill neat grinding (NG) and liquid assisted grinding (LAG).
We explore the effects of particle size and solvent environment on the thermodynamic stability of two pairs of polymorphs subjected to ball-mill neat grinding (NG) and liquid assisted grinding (LAG). Two systems were studied: (i) forms I and II of a 1 : 1 theophylline : benzamide cocrystal and (ii) forms A and B of an aromatic disulfide compound. For both systems, the most stable-bulk polymorph converted to the metastable-bulk polymorph upon NG. LAG experiments yielded different outcomes depending on the amount of solvent used. This was further investigated by performing carefully controlled LAG experiments with increasing μL amounts of solvents of different nature. With these experiments, we were able to monitor form A to B and form I to II conversions as a function of solvent concentration and derive polymorph equilibrium curves. The concentration required for a switch in polymorphic outcome was found to be dependent on solvent nature. We propose that these experiments demonstrate a switch in thermodynamic stability of the polymorphs in the milling jar. Form B, the stable-bulk polymorph, has less stable surfaces than form A, thus becoming metastable at the nanoscale when surface effects become important. Ex situ diffraction and electron microscopy data confirm crystal sizes in the order of tens of nanometers after the ball mill grinding experiments reach equilibrium. DFT-d computations of the polymorph particles stabilities support these findings and were used to calculate cross-over sizes of forms A and B as a function of solvent. Attachment energies and surface stabilities of the various crystalline faces exposed were found to be very sensitive to the solvent environment. Our findings suggest that surface effects are significant in polymorphism at the nanoscale and that the outcomes of equilibrium ball-mill NG and LAG experiments are in general controlled by thermodynamics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A M Belenguer
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , UK . ;
| | - G I Lampronti
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , UK . ; .,Department of Earth Sciences , University of Cambridge , Downing St , Cambridge , CB2 3EQ , UK
| | - A J Cruz-Cabeza
- School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science , The University of Manchester , Oxford Road , Manchester , M13 9PL , UK
| | - C A Hunter
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , UK . ;
| | - J K M Sanders
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , UK . ;
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Sagara Y, Simon YC, Tamaoki N, Weder C. A mechano- and thermoresponsive luminescent cyclophane. Chem Commun (Camb) 2016; 52:5694-7. [PMID: 27040453 DOI: 10.1039/c6cc01614f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The first fluorescent cyclophane with mechano- and thermoresponsive solid-state fluorescence characteristics is reported. The new cyclophane comprises two 9,10-bis(phenylethynyl)anthracene moieties that are bridged by tetraethylene glycol spacers. The stimuli-responsiveness is based on molecular assembly changes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoshimitsu Sagara
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, N20, W10, Kita-Ku, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan. and Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
| | - Yoan C Simon
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland. and School of Polymers and High Performance Materials, the University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Dr. #5050, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
| | - Nobuyuki Tamaoki
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, N20, W10, Kita-Ku, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan.
| | - Christoph Weder
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Fritze UF, von Delius M. Dynamic disulfide metathesis induced by ultrasound. Chem Commun (Camb) 2016; 52:6363-6. [PMID: 27056064 DOI: 10.1039/c6cc02034h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The reversible metathesis of disulfide bonds is generally induced by a combination of a reducing agent and base or by irradiation with ultraviolet light. Here we report that ultrasound irradiation is suitable for generating clean equilibrium mixtures of disulfides within one hour or one day, depending on the sonication source. Preliminary mechanistic investigations suggest that the solvent plays an active role in producing initiator radicals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Urs F Fritze
- Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy & Interdisciplinary Center of Molecular Materials (ICMM), Henkestrasse 42, 91054 Erlangen, Germany.
| | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Nakai Y, Takahashi A, Goseki R, Otsuka H. Facile modification and fixation of diaryl disulphide-containing dynamic covalent polyesters by iodine-catalysed insertion-like addition reactions of styrene derivatives to disulphide units. Polym Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6py00963h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Insertion-like addition of disulphide-containing polyesters to styrene derivatives is reported, enabling facile control of various properties including dynamic covalent characteristics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yukako Nakai
- Department of Organic and Polymeric Materials
- Tokyo Institute of Technology
- Tokyo
- Japan
| | - Akira Takahashi
- Department of Organic and Polymeric Materials
- Tokyo Institute of Technology
- Tokyo
- Japan
| | - Raita Goseki
- Department of Organic and Polymeric Materials
- Tokyo Institute of Technology
- Tokyo
- Japan
- Department of Chemical Science and Engineering
| | - Hideyuki Otsuka
- Department of Organic and Polymeric Materials
- Tokyo Institute of Technology
- Tokyo
- Japan
- Department of Chemical Science and Engineering
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Takahashi A, Ohishi T, Goseki R, Otsuka H. Degradable epoxy resins prepared from diepoxide monomer with dynamic covalent disulfide linkage. POLYMER 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2015.11.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
34
|
Martinolich AJ, Kurzman JA, Neilson JR. Polymorph selectivity of superconducting CuSe₂ through kinetic control of solid-state metathesis. J Am Chem Soc 2015; 137:3827-33. [PMID: 25746853 DOI: 10.1021/ja512520z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Rational preparation of materials by design is a major goal of inorganic, solid-state, and materials chemists alike. Oftentimes, the use of nonmetallurgical reactions (e.g., chalcogenide fluxes, hydrothermal syntheses, and in this case solid-state metathesis) alters the thermodynamic driving force of the reaction and allows new, refractory, or otherwise energetically unfavorable materials to form under softer conditions. Taking this a step further, alteration of a metathesis reaction pathway can result in either the formation of the equilibrium marcasite polymorph (by stringent exclusion of air) or the kinetically controlled formation of the high-pressure pyrite polymorph of CuSe2 (by exposure to air). From analysis of the reaction coordinate with in situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction and pair distribution function analysis as well as differential scanning calorimetry, it is clear that the air-exposed reaction proceeds via slight, endothermic rearrangements of crystalline intermediates to form pyrite, which is attributed to partial solvation of the reaction from atmospheric humidity. In contrast, the air-free reaction proceeds via a significant exothermic process to form marcasite. Decoupling the formation of NaCl from the formation of CuSe2 enables kinetic control to be exercised over the resulting polymorph of these superconducting metal dichalcogenides.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Martinolich
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1872, United States
| | - Joshua A Kurzman
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1872, United States
| | - James R Neilson
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1872, United States
| |
Collapse
|