Nanorods of Endohedral Metallofullerene Derivative

Crystalline architectures of C84 with tunable morphology and linearly polarized red emission

Fullerene-based micro/nano-architectures (FMNAs) with remarkable photoluminescence (PL) emissions have attracted considerable interest as potential building blocks for optical and biolabeling applications, by virtue of their low toxicity and environmentally friendly nature. Nevertheless, the PL polarization properties of FMNAs have rarely been explored. Herein, we demonstrate the preparation of highly crystalline architectures of C84, which exhibit polymorphism depending on the preparation conditions but possess similar hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structures. The PL data demonstrate that the as-prepared carambola-like hexagonal microprisms (c-HPs) show enhanced red emission compared to regular hexagonal microprisms (r-HPs). More importantly, the linear polarization of the PL emission is verified and estimated through single-prism spectroscopy, which changes from 0.42 (r-HP) to 0.58 (c-HP), comparable to those of traditional rod-like semiconductors. Thus, we demonstrate a significant correlation between the morphology and emission characteristics of C84-based microprisms, highlighting the possibility of controlling the photophysical properties of FMNAs by finely tailoring their external morphologies. This study expands the range of carbon materials with linearly polarized emissions and offers potential for use in polarization-based micro-scale sensors or detectors.

Supramolecular Engineering of Crystalline Fullerene Micro-/Nano-Architectures

Fullerenes are a molecular form of carbon allotrope and bear certain solubility, which allow the supramolecular assembly of fullerene molecules-also together with other complementary compound classes-via solution-based wet processes. By well-programmed organizing these building blocks and precisely modulating over the assembly process, supramolecularly assembled fullerene micro-/nano-architectures (FMNAs) are obtained. These FMNAs exhibit remarkably enhanced functions as well as tunable morphologies and dimensions at different size scales, leading to their applications in diverse fields. In this review, both traditional and newly developed assembly strategies are reviewed, with an emphasis on the morphological evolution mechanism of FMNAs. The discussion is then focused on how to precisely regulate the dimensions and morphologies to generate functional FMNAs through solvent engineering, co-crystallization, surfactant incorporation, or post-fabrication treatment. In addition to C₆₀ -based FMNAs, this review particularly focuses on recently fabricated FMNAs comprising higher fullerenes (e.g., C₇₀ ) and metallofullerenes. Meanwhile, an overview of the property modulation is presented and multidisciplinary applications of FMNAs in various fields are summarized, including sensors, optoelectronics, biomedicines, and energy. At the end, the prospects for future research, application opportunities, and challenges associated with FMNAs are proposed.

An Androsterone-H2 @C60 hybrid: Synthesis, Properties and Molecular Docking Simulations with SARS-Cov-2

We report the synthesis and characterization of a fullerene‐steroid hybrid that contains H₂@C₆₀ and a dehydroepiandrosterone moiety synthesized by a cyclopropanation reaction with 76 % yield. Theoretical calculations at the DFT‐D3(BJ)/PBE 6‐311G(d,p) level predict the most stable conformation and that the saturation of a double bond is the main factor causing the upfield shielding of the signal appearing at −3.13 ppm, which corresponds to the H₂ located inside the fullerene cage. Relevant stereoelectronic parameters were also investigated and reinforce the idea that electronic interactions must be considered to develop studies on chemical‐biological interactions. A molecular docking simulation predicted that the binding energy values for the protease‐hybrid complexes were −9.9 kcal/mol and −13.5 kcal/mol for PL^pro and 3CL^pro respectively, indicating the potential use of the synthesized steroid‐H₂@C₆₀ as anti‐SARS‐Cov‐2 agent.

Lu2@C82 Nanorods with Enhanced Photoluminescence and Photoelectrochemical Properties

One-dimensional (1D) single-crystalline hexagonal nanorods of Lu₂@C_3v(8)-C₈₂ were prepared for the first time using the liquid-liquid interface precipitation (LLIP) method from the interfaces between carbon disulfide (CS₂) and isopropyl alcohol (IPA). The length of the nanorods can be readily controlled by varying the concentration of the Lu₂@C₈₂ solution in addition to the volume ratio of CS₂ to IPA. The latter factor also exhibits a significant influence on the morphology of the crystals. The crystalline structure of the nanorods has been investigated by XRD and selected area electron diffraction (SAED), suggesting a face-centered cubic structure. Photoluminescence of the Lu₂@C₈₂ nanorods shows a remarkable enhancement as compared to that of pristine Lu₂@C₈₂ powder because of the high crystallinity. Furthermore, we have investigated the photoelectrochemical properties of Lu₂@C₈₂ nanorods, proving their potential applications as photodetectors.

Preparation, Structural Determination, and Characterization of Electronic Properties of Bis-silylated and Bis-germylated Lu3 N@Ih -C80

Bis-silylated and bis-germylated derivatives of Lu3 N@Ih -C80 (3, 4, 5) were successfully synthesized by the photochemical addition of disiliranes 1 a, 1 b or digermirane 2, and fully characterized by spectroscopic, electrochemical, and theoretical studies. Interestingly, digermirane 2 reacts more efficiently than disiliranes 1 a and 1 b because of its good electron-donor properties and lower steric hindrance around the Ge-Ge bond. The 1,4-adduct structures of 3, 4, 5 were unequivocally established by single-crystal X-ray crystallographic analyses. The electrochemical and theoretical studies reveal that the energy gaps between the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) of the 1,4-adducts are remarkably smaller than those of Lu3 N@Ih -C80 , because the electron-donating groups effectively raise the HOMO levels. It is also observed that germyl groups are slightly more electron-donating than the silyl groups on the basis of the redox properties and the HOMO-LUMO energies of 4 and 5. Bis-silylation and bis-germylation are effective and versatile methods for tuning the electronic characteristics of endohedral metallofullerenes.

Dynamic motion of an Lu pair inside a C76(Td) cage

The dynamic motion of an Lu pair inside a C₇₆(T_d) cage was investigated by relativistic density functional theory (DFT).

Unprecedented chemical reactivity of a paramagnetic endohedral metallofullerene La@C(s)-C82 that leads hydrogen addition in the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction

Synthesizing unprecedented diamagnetic adducts of an endohedral metallofullerene was achieved by using 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction of paramagnetic La@C(s)-C82 with a simultaneous hydrogen addition. The selective formation of two main products, La@C(s)-C82HCMe2NMeCHPh (2a and 2b), was first detected by HPLC analysis and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. 2a and 2b-O, which was readily formed by the oxidation of 2b, were isolated by multistep HPLC separation and were fully characterized by spectroscopic methods, including 1D and 2D-NMR, UV-vis-NIR measurements and electrochemistry. The hydrogen atom was found to be connected to the fullerene cage directly in the case of 2a, and the redox behavior indicated that the C-H bond can still be readily oxidized. The reaction mechanism and the molecular structures of 2a and 2b were reasonably proposed by the interplay between experimental observations and DFT calculations. The feasible order of the reaction process would involve a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition followed by the hydrogen addition through a radical pathway. It is concluded that the characteristic electronic properties and molecular structure of La@C(s)-C82 resulted in a site-selective reaction, which afforded a unique chemical derivative of an endohedral metallofullerene in high yields. Derivative 2a constitutes the first endohedral metallofullerene where the direct linking of a hydrogen atom has been structurally proven.

Catalytic stereodivergent functionalization of H2@C60

A complete stereocontrol of 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of N-metalated azomethine ylides onto endohedral fullerene H2@C60 is reported for the first time. The stereodivergent synthesis of either the cis or the trans endohedral cycloadduct is achieved with excellent diastereo- and enantioselectivities.

Current status and future developments of endohedral metallofullerenes

Endohedral metallofullerenes (EMFs), a new class of hybrid molecules formed by encapsulation of metallic species inside fullerene cages, exhibit unique properties that differ distinctly from those of empty fullerenes because of the presence of metals and their hybridization effects via electron transfer. This critical review provides a balanced but not an exhaustive summary regarding almost all aspects of EMFs, including the history, the classification, current progress in the synthesis, extraction, isolation, and characterization of EMFs, as well as their physiochemical properties and applications in fields such as electronics, photovoltaics, biomedicine, and materials science. Emphasis is assigned to experimentally obtained results, especially the X-ray crystallographic characterizations of EMFs and their derivatives, rather than theoretical calculations, although the latter has indeed enhanced our knowledge of metal-cage interactions. Finally, perspectives related to future developments and challenges in the research of EMFs are proposed. (381 references).

Micron-sized hexagonal single-crystalline rods of metal nitride clusterfullerene: preparation, characterization, and photoelectrochemical application

Micron-sized hexagonal single-crystalline Sc(3)N@C(80) rods have been successfully prepared for the first time by a liquid-liquid interfacial precipitation (LLIP) method with the first utilization of p-xylene as the solvent dissolving Sc(3)N@C(80). The effect of the concentration of the Sc(3)N@C(80) solution on the size and length of the Sc(3)N@C(80) rods has been studied, indicating that the length of Sc(3)N@C(80) rods can be readily controlled by varying the concentration of the Sc(3)N@C(80) solution. The crystal structure of the Sc(3)N@C(80) rods has been investigated by XRD and the electron diffraction patterns, pointing to a hexagonal system. The growth kinetics of the Sc(3)N@C(80) rods has been studied by monitoring the morphology evolution of the Sc(3)N@C(80) crystals, and a plausible mechanism is proposed, featuring an intermediate hexagonal star-shaped prism structure with grooves. Raman spectroscopic characterization confirmed that the Sc(3)N@C(80) rods are composed of monomeric pristine Sc(3)N@C(80) molecules and no polymerization has occurred in the crystal lattice, and a significant Raman enhancement in the low-energy region is observed. According to the UV-vis-NIR absorption spectroscopic study of the Sc(3)N@C(80) rods, where much broader and stronger absorptions in the visible and near-infrared regions than that of the Sc(3)N@C(80) solution were revealed, we conclude that the electronic structure of the Sc(3)N@C(80) molecule is largely perturbed upon formation of micron-sized single-crystalline rods because of the strong intermolecular π-π interactions. Finally photoelectrochemical application of the Sc(3)N@C(80) rods was studied based on a Sc(3)N@C(80) rods-modified ITO electrode prepared by electrophoretic deposition and revealed a higher photocurrent response than that obtained in the Sc(3)N@C(80) films drop-coated onto an ITO electrode.

Chemistry of endohedral metallofullerenes: the role of metals

Recent breakthroughs achieved in the chemical functionalization of endohedral metallofullerenes (EMFs), especially single crystallographic X-ray characterizations of their derivatives, have presented fundamentally new insights into the structures and properties of these metal-carbon hybrid molecules, and have also brought immense potential applications. In particular, the interplay between the encapsulated metallic species and the fullerene cage has been well investigated. On one hand, the position and motion of the encapsulated metals can be effectively controlled by exohedral modification. On the other hand, the cage structures, the chemical behaviours of cage carbons and thus the chemical reactivity of the whole molecule are also apparently influenced by the electronic configuration and geometrical conformation of the internal metals via strong metal-cage interactions. In this article, we contribute a systematic review of the important chemical transformations of EMFs reported to date, including disilylation, 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition with ylides, cyclopropanation with carbenes and carbanions, cycloaddition with dienes and benzyne, radical reactions, and other miscellaneous reactions, in addition to noncovalent interactions such as supramolecular complexation. The roles that internal metals play in controlling the reactivity of cage carbons are particularly emphasized. Finally, some applicable materials based on EMFs and their derivatives are summarized and practical perspectives are proposed.

Endohedral metal atoms in pristine and functionalized fullerene cages

Fullerene, an allotropic form of carbon made up of spherical molecules formed from pentagonal and hexagonal rings, was first discovered in 1985. Because fullerenes have spacious inner cavities, atoms and clusters can be encapsulated inside the fullerene cages to form endohedral fullerenes. In particular, the unique structural and electronic properties of endohedral metallofullerenes (EMFs), where metal atoms are encapsulated within the fullerene, have attracted wide interest from physicists and chemists as well as materials scientists and biologists. The remarkable characteristics of these molecules originate in the electron transfer from the encapsulated metal atoms to the carbon cage. The positions and movements of the encapsulated metal atoms are important determinants of the chemical and physical properties of EMFs. In this Account, we specifically describe the positions and dynamic behavior of the metal atoms encapsulated in pristine and functionalized fullerene cages. First, we examined whether the metal atoms are attached rigidly to cage carbons or move around. Our systematic investigations of EMFs, including M@C(2v)-C(82), M(2)@D(2)(10611)-C(72), M(2)@D(3h)(5)-C(78), M(2)@I(h)-C(80), and M(2)@D(5h)-C(80), revealed that the metal positions and movements vary widely with different cage structures and numbers of metal atoms. Second, we wanted to understand whether we could control the positions and movements of the untouchable metal atoms in EMFs. One possible way to modulate this behavior was through attachment of a molecule to the outer surface of the cage. We developed synthetic methods to modify EMFs and have examined the metal positions and movements in the functionalized carbon cages. Remarkably, we could alter the dynamic behavior of the encaged metal atoms in M(2)@I(h)-C(80) drastically through chemical modification of the outer cage. We anticipate that the control of metal atom structures and dynamics within a cage could be valuable for designing functional molecular devices with new electronic or magnetic properties.

Preparation and optical properties of fullerene/ferrocene hybrid hexagonal nanosheets and large-scale production of fullerene hexagonal nanosheets

The supramolecular nanoarchitectures, C(60)/ferrocene nanosheets, were prepared by a simple liquid-liquid interfacial precipitation method and fully characterized by means of SEM, STEM, HRTEM, XRD, Raman and UV-vis-NIR spectra. The highly crystallized C(60)/ferrocene hexagonal nanosheets had a size of ca. 9 microm and the formulation C(60)(ferrocene)(2). A strong charge-transfer (CT) band between ferrocene and C(60) was observed at 782 nm, indicating the presence of donor-acceptor interaction in the nanosheets. Upon heating the nanosheets to 150 degrees C, the CT band disappeared due to the sublimation of ferrocene from the C(60)/ferrocene hybrid, and C(60) nanosheets with an fcc crystal structure and the same shape and size as the C(60)/ferrocene nanosheets were obtained.

Radical coupling reaction of paramagnetic endohedral metallofullerene La@C82

The thermal reaction of La@C(82)(C(2v)) with 3-triphenylmethyl-5-oxazolidinone (1) in toluene affords benzyl monoadducts La@C(82)(C(2v))(CH(2)C(6)H(5)) (2a-2d). The same monoadducts are also obtained by the photoirradiation of La@C(82)(C(2v)) in toluene without the existence of 1. These reactions are applicable to paramagnetic metallofullerenes, such as La@C(82)(C(s)) and Ce@C(82)(C(2v)). The photoirradiation of La@C(82)(C(2v)) in 1,2-dichlorobenzene in the presence of alpha,alpha,2,4-tetrachlorotoluene also affords the monoadducts La@C(82)(C(2v))(CHClC(6)H(3)Cl(2)) (3a-3d). The monoadducts are fully characterized by spectroscopic analyses. Single-crystal X-ray structure analysis for 3d reveals the unique structure. Theoretical calculations show that the cage carbons having high spin densities are selectively attacked by radical species to form the monoadducts linked by a carbon-carbon single bond. The thermal reaction of La@C(82)(C(2v)) with 1 in benzene affords metallofulleropyrrolidine La@C(82)(C(2v))(C(2)H(4)NCPh(3)) (5), unlike the reaction in toluene.

Surgery of fullerenes

Recent attempts at the synthesis of endohedral fullerenes by organic reactions, so-called "molecular surgery" methods, are surveyed. The creation of an opening on the surface of fullerene cages allowed insertion of He, H(2), H(2)O, or CO within the cages. An effective route to "suture" an opening was established to realize a new endohedral fullerene, H(2)@C(60). Further development of this operation as well as the properties and reactions of H(2)@C(60) are summarized. Also the application of the encapsulated H(2) molecule as an NMR probe for the study of aromaticity of ionic fullerenes is described.