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Christensen CSQ, Hansen N, Motadayen M, Lock N, Henriksen ML, Quinson J. A review of metal-organic frameworks and polymers in mixed matrix membranes for CO 2 capture. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2025; 16:155-186. [PMID: 39968168 PMCID: PMC11833178 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.16.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2024] [Accepted: 01/10/2025] [Indexed: 02/20/2025]
Abstract
Polymeric membranes offer an appealing solution for sustainable CO2 capture, with potential for large-scale deployment. However, balancing high permeability and selectivity is an inherent challenge for pristine membranes. To address this challenge, the development of mixed matrix membranes (MMMs) is a promising strategy. MMMs are obtained by carefully integrating porous nano-fillers into polymeric matrices, enabling the simultaneous enhancement of selectivity and permeability. In particular, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have gained recognition as MMM fillers for CO2 capture. Here, a review of the current state, recent advancements, and challenges in the fabrication and engineering of MMMs with MOFs for selective CO2 capture is proposed. Key considerations and promising research directions to fully exploit the gas separation potential of MOF-based MMMs in CO2 capture applications are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Skjold Qvist Christensen
- Department of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Aarhus University, Ole Worms Allé 3, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
- Centre for Water Technology (WATEC), Aarhus University, Ole Worms Allé 3, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Nicholas Hansen
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Mahboubeh Motadayen
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Aarhus University, Finlandsgade 22, 8200 Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Nina Lock
- Department of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Aarhus University, Aabogade 40, 8200 Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Martin Lahn Henriksen
- Department of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Aarhus University, Aabogade 40, 8200 Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Jonathan Quinson
- Department of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Aarhus University, Aabogade 40, 8200 Aarhus N, Denmark
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2
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Yang Y, Fernández-Seriñán P, Ortín-Rubio B, Samanta P, Gándara F, Proserpio DM, Nam D, Juanhuix J, Imaz I, Maspoch D. Merging and Clipping Nets for the Synthesis of Three- and Two-Merged Net Metal-Organic Frameworks. J Am Chem Soc 2025; 147:1344-1355. [PMID: 39715447 PMCID: PMC11726571 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.4c15936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2024] [Revised: 12/04/2024] [Accepted: 12/05/2024] [Indexed: 12/25/2024]
Abstract
Herein, we report how merging and clipping nets in metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) can be controlled in a single-crystal-to-single-crystal fashion using three different approaches─the merged net, clip-off chemistry, and linker reinstallation─to design and synthesize three- and two-merged net MOFs. Initially, we show the formation of three isoreticular three-merged net MOFs by linking a trimeric Sc3+ cluster, Sc3(μ3-Ο)(-COO)6, with ditopic zigzag and tritopic linkers. The resulting MOFs exhibit three-merged edge-transitive nets─kgd + hxl + pcu─for the first time. Then, using these three-merged net MOFs as precursors, we selectively remove one of these subnets, the hxl net, via clip-off chemistry to form two-merged net MOFs. This process involves the cleavage of olefinic groups via ozonolysis, providing the resulting two-merged net MOFs with free carboxylic acid groups that can be used to tune their sorption properties such as the removal of cationic organic pollutants. Finally, we use the linker reinstallation approach to convert the two-merged net MOFs back to the three-merged net MOFs. This approach allows for the postsynthetic addition of the previously removed hxl merged net, enabling recovery of the initial three-merged net MOFs or synthesis of new ones using novel ditopic zigzag linkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunhui Yang
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC, and Barcelona
Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- Departament
de Química, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra 08193, Spain
| | - Pilar Fernández-Seriñán
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC, and Barcelona
Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- Departament
de Química, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra 08193, Spain
| | - Borja Ortín-Rubio
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC, and Barcelona
Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- Departament
de Química, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra 08193, Spain
| | - Partha Samanta
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC, and Barcelona
Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- Departament
de Química, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra 08193, Spain
| | - Felipe Gándara
- Materials
Science Institute of Madrid (ICMM), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones
Científicas (CSIC), Calle Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, 3, Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - Davide M. Proserpio
- Dipartamento
di Chimica, Università degli Studi
di Milano, Milano 20133, Italy
| | - Dongsik Nam
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC, and Barcelona
Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- Departament
de Química, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra 08193, Spain
| | - Judith Juanhuix
- Alba
Synchrotron
Light Facility, Carrer
de la Llum, 2, 26, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona 08290, Spain
| | - Inhar Imaz
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC, and Barcelona
Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- Departament
de Química, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra 08193, Spain
| | - Daniel Maspoch
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC, and Barcelona
Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- Departament
de Química, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra 08193, Spain
- ICREA, Pg. Lluís Companys 23, Barcelona 08010, Spain
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3
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Romero-Muñiz I, Loukopoulos E, Xiong Y, Zamora F, Platero-Prats AE. Exploring porous structures without crystals: advancements with pair distribution function in metal- and covalent organic frameworks. Chem Soc Rev 2024; 53:11772-11803. [PMID: 39400325 DOI: 10.1039/d4cs00267a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2024]
Abstract
The pair distribution function (PDF) is a versatile characterisation tool in materials science, capable of retrieving atom-atom distances on a continuous scale (from a few angstroms to nanometres), without being restricted to crystalline samples. Typically, total scattering experiments are performed using high-energy synchrotron X-rays, neutrons or electrons to achieve a high atomic resolution in a short time. Recently, PDF analysis provides a powerful approach to target current characterisation challenges in the field of metal- and covalent organic frameworks. By identifying molecular interactions on the pore surfaces, tracking complex structural transformations involving disorder states, and elucidating nucleation and growth mechanisms, structural analysis using PDF has provided invaluable insights into these materials. This review article highlights the significance of PDF analysis in advancing our understanding of MOFs and COFs, paving the way for innovative applications and discoveries in porous materials research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio Romero-Muñiz
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Edward Loukopoulos
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Ying Xiong
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Félix Zamora
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
- Condensed Matter Physics Center (IFIMAC), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana E Platero-Prats
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
- Condensed Matter Physics Center (IFIMAC), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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4
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Nam D, Albalad J, Sánchez-Naya R, Ruiz-Relaño S, Cortés-Martínez A, Yang Y, Juanhuix J, Imaz I, Maspoch D. Isolation of the Secondary Building Unit of a 3D Metal-Organic Framework through Clip-Off Chemistry, and Its Reuse To Synthesize New Frameworks by Dynamic Covalent Chemistry. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:27255-27261. [PMID: 39348446 PMCID: PMC11468772 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.4c09077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2024] [Revised: 09/17/2024] [Accepted: 09/24/2024] [Indexed: 10/02/2024]
Abstract
Herein, we present a novel methodology for synthesizing metal clusters or secondary building units (SBUs) that are subsequently employed to construct innovative metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) via dynamic covalent chemistry. Our approach entails extraction of SBUs from preformed MOFs through complete disassembly by clip-off chemistry. The initial MOF precursor is designed to incorporate the desired SBU, connected exclusively by cleavable linkers (in this study, with olefinic bonds). Cleavage of all the organic linkers (in this study, via ozonolysis under reductive conditions) liberates the SBUs functionalized with aldehyde groups. Once synthesized, these SBUs can be further reacted with amines in dynamic covalent chemistry to build new, rationally designed MOFs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongsik Nam
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and The Barcelona
Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Department
of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Barcelona
(UAB), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jorge Albalad
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and The Barcelona
Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Department
of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Barcelona
(UAB), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Roberto Sánchez-Naya
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and The Barcelona
Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Department
of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Barcelona
(UAB), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sara Ruiz-Relaño
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and The Barcelona
Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Department
of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Barcelona
(UAB), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alba Cortés-Martínez
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and The Barcelona
Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Department
of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Barcelona
(UAB), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Yunhui Yang
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and The Barcelona
Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Department
of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Barcelona
(UAB), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Judith Juanhuix
- Alba
Synchrotron Light Facility, Cerdanyola
del Vallès, 08290 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Inhar Imaz
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and The Barcelona
Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Department
of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Barcelona
(UAB), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Daniel Maspoch
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and The Barcelona
Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Department
of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Barcelona
(UAB), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- ICREA, Passeig Lluís Companys 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
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5
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Ruiz-Relaño S, Nam D, Albalad J, Cortés-Martínez A, Juanhuix J, Imaz I, Maspoch D. Synthesis of Metal-Organic Cages via Orthogonal Bond Cleavage in 3D Metal-Organic Frameworks. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:26603-26608. [PMID: 39311525 PMCID: PMC11450890 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.4c09431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2024] [Revised: 09/17/2024] [Accepted: 09/17/2024] [Indexed: 10/03/2024]
Abstract
Herein we address the question of whether a supramolecular finite metal-organic structure such as a cage or metal-organic polyhedron (MOP) can be synthesized via controlled cleavage of a three-dimensional (3D) metal-organic structure. To demonstrate this, we report the synthesis of a Cu(II)-based cuboctahedral MOP through orthogonal olefinic bond cleavage of the cavities of a 3D, Cu(II)-based, metal-organic framework (MOF). Additionally, we demonstrate that controlling the ozonolysis conditions used for the cleavage enables Clip-off Chemistry synthesis of two cuboctahedral MOPs that differ by their external functionalization: one in which all 24 external groups represent a mixture of aldehydes, carboxylic acids, acetals and esters, and one in which all are aldehydes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Ruiz-Relaño
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament
de Química, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Dongsik Nam
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament
de Química, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jorge Albalad
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament
de Química, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alba Cortés-Martínez
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament
de Química, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Judith Juanhuix
- Alba
Synchrotron Light Facility, Cerdanyola
del Vallès, 08290 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Inhar Imaz
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament
de Química, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Daniel Maspoch
- Catalan
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament
de Química, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- ICREA, Passeig Lluis Companys 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
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6
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Huang Z, Rath J, Zhou Q, Cherevan A, Naghdi S, Eder D. Hierarchically Micro- and Mesoporous Zeolitic Imidazolate Frameworks Through Selective Ligand Removal. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024; 20:e2307981. [PMID: 38126913 PMCID: PMC11478943 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202307981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
A new method to engineer hierarchically porous zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs) through selective ligand removal (SeLiRe) is presented. This innovative approach involves crafting mixed-ligand ZIFs (ML-ZIFs) with varying proportions of 2-aminobenzimidazole (NH2-bIm) and 2-methylimidazole (2-mIm), followed by controlled thermal treatments. This process creates a dual-pore system, incorporating both micropores and additional mesopores, suggesting selective cleavage of metal-ligand coordination bonds. Achieving this delicate balance requires adjustment of heating conditions for each mixed-ligand ratio, enabling the targeted removal of NH2-bIm from a variety of ML-ZIFs while preserving their inherent microporous framework. Furthermore, the distribution of the initial thermolabile ligand plays a pivotal role in determining the resulting mesopore architecture. The efficacy of this methodology is aptly demonstrated through the assessment of hierarchically porous ZIFs for their potential in adsorbing diverse organic dyes in aqueous environments. Particularly striking is the performance of the 10%NH2-ZIF-2 h, which showcases an astonishing 40-fold increase in methylene blue adsorption capacity compared to ZIF-8, attributed to larger pore volumes that accelerate the diffusion of dye molecules to adsorption sites. This versatile technique opens new avenues for designing micro/mesoporous ZIFs, particularly suited for liquid media scenarios necessitating efficient active site access and optimal diffusion kinetics, such as purification, catalysis, and sensing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheao Huang
- Institute of Material ChemistryVienna University of TechnologyVienna1060Austria
| | - Jakob Rath
- Institute of Material ChemistryVienna University of TechnologyVienna1060Austria
| | - Qiancheng Zhou
- Institute of Nanoscience and NanotechnologyCollege of Physical Science and TechnologyCentral China Normal UniversityWuhan430079China
| | - Alexey Cherevan
- Institute of Material ChemistryVienna University of TechnologyVienna1060Austria
| | - Shaghayegh Naghdi
- Institute of Material ChemistryVienna University of TechnologyVienna1060Austria
| | - Dominik Eder
- Institute of Material ChemistryVienna University of TechnologyVienna1060Austria
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7
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Froudas K, Vassaki M, Papadopoulos K, Tsangarakis C, Chen X, Shepard W, Fairen-Jimenez D, Tampaxis C, Charalambopoulou G, Steriotis TA, Trikalitis PN. Expanding the Reticular Chemistry Building Block Library toward Highly Connected Nets: Ultraporous MOFs Based on 18-Connected Ternary, Trigonal Prismatic Superpolyhedra. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:8961-8970. [PMID: 38428926 PMCID: PMC10996011 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c12679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
The chemistry of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) continues to expand rapidly, providing materials with diverse structures and properties. The reticular chemistry approach, where well-defined structural building blocks are combined together to form crystalline open framework solids, has greatly accelerated the discovery of new and important materials. However, its full potential toward the rational design of MOFs relies on the availability of highly connected building blocks because these greatly reduce the number of possible structures. Toward this, building blocks with connectivity greater than 12 are highly desirable but extremely rare. We report here the discovery of novel 18-connected, trigonal prismatic, ternary building blocks (tbb's) and their assembly into unique MOFs, denoted as Fe-tbb-MOF-x (x: 1, 2, 3), with hierarchical micro- and mesoporosity. The remarkable tbb is an 18-c supertrigonal prism, with three points of extension at each corner, consisting of triangular (3-c) and rectangular (4-c) carboxylate-based organic linkers and trigonal prismatic [Fe3(μ3-Ο)(-COO)6]+ clusters. The tbb's are linked together by an 18-c cluster made of 4-c ligands and a crystallographically distinct Fe3(μ3-Ο) trimer, forming overall a 3-D (3,4,4,6,6)-c five nodal net. The hierarchical, highly porous nature of Fe-tbb-MOF-x (x: 1, 2, 3) was confirmed by recording detailed sorption isotherms of Ar, CH4, and CO2 at 87, 112, and 195 K, respectively, revealing an ultrahigh BET area (4263-4847 m2 g-1) and pore volume (1.95-2.29 cm3 g-1). Because of the observed ultrahigh porosities, the H2 and CH4 storage properties of Fe-tbb-MOF-x were investigated, revealing well-balanced high gravimetric and volumetric deliverable capacities for cryoadsorptive H2 storage (11.6 wt %/41.4 g L-1, 77 K/100 bar-160 K/5 bar), as well as CH4 storage at near ambient temperatures (367 mg g-1/160 cm3 STP cm-3, 5-100 bar at 298 K), placing these materials among the top performing MOFs. The present work opens new directions to apply reticular chemistry for the construction of novel MOFs with tunable porosities based on contracted or expanded tbb analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maria Vassaki
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Crete, Heraklion 71003, Greece
| | | | | | - Xu Chen
- Department
of Chemical Engineering & Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, U.K.
| | - William Shepard
- Synchrotron
SOLEIL-UR1, L’Orme des Merisiers, Saint-Aubin, BP 48, Gif-Sur-Yvette 91192, France
| | - David Fairen-Jimenez
- Department
of Chemical Engineering & Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, U.K.
| | - Christos Tampaxis
- National
Center for Scientific Research “Demokritos”, Athens 15341, Greece
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