Room-Temperature Activation of Hydrogen by Semi-immobilized Frustrated Lewis Pairs in Microporous Polymer Networks

Exploring Supramolecular Frustrated Lewis Pairs

Frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs) have rapidly become one of the key metal-free catalysts for a variety of chemical transformations. Embedding these catalysts within a supramolecular assembly can offer improvements to factors such as recyclability and selectivity. In this review we discuss advances in this area, covering key supramolecular assemblies such as metal organic frameworks (MOFs), covalent organic frameworks (COFs), polymers and macrocycles.

Quantifying interactions in the active encounter complex of frustrated Lewis pairs

Sustainable catalysts based on main-group elements, such as frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs), have emerged as alternatives to precious metal systems. The initial reaction of the Lewis acid, Lewis base and small molecule (e.g. H2) is formally termolecular, but the reaction is rationalised by the pre-association of the acid and base in an encounter complex. Here we show that the charge-transfer band between P(mes)3 and B(C6F5)3 can be analysed by supramolecular UV-vis spectroscopic techniques to provide the key thermodynamic parameter, the association constant (Ka), for the active encounter complex, i.e. the pre-associated complex that is specifically in the correct orientation for small-molecule activation. We also demonstrate that a higher concentration of active encounter complex in solution leads to a faster activation of hydrogen. This method enables researchers to directly probe the complex that underpins FLP small-molecule activation and subsequent catalysis, and will aid the design of more active sustainable catalysts.

B, N Codoped Defective Reduced Graphene Oxide as a Highly Efficient Frustrated Lewis Pairs Catalyst for the Selective Hydrogenation of α,β-Unsaturated Aldehydes to Unsaturated Alcohols

The development of all-solid-state frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs) metal-free hydrogenation catalysts with excellent activity and stability remains a significant challenge. In this work, B, N codoped FLPs catalysts (De-rGO-NxBy) were prepared by the strategy of fabricating carbon defects and heteroatom doping on the surface of reduced graphene oxide and applied in the selective hydrogenation of α,β-unsaturated aldehydes to unsaturated alcohols. It was found that electron-rich pyridine-N (Lewis base) and adjacent electron-deficient B-N (Lewis acid) sites could be constructed on the surface of reduced graphene oxide using dicyandiamide and metaboric acid as N and B sources, thus forming FLPs sites. More importantly, the constructed carbon defects could facilitate the formation of pyridinic-N/B-N FLPs sites, thereby improving the catalytic hydrogenation activity and the selectivity to unsaturated alcohols. Furthermore, in situ DRIFTS and DFT calculations show that the pyridinic-N/B-N FLPs sites can efficiently activate the C═O of aldehydes and H2 molecules with only 0.53 eV dissociation energy of the H-H bond. Also, the catalyst presents excellent catalytic performance in the transfer hydrogenation reactions with cyclohexanol and its derivatives as hydrogen sources. This study provides new ideas for the design and preparation of all-solid-state FLPs metal-free catalysts and promotes the green synthesis of unsaturated alcohols.

Experimental and computational aspects of molecular frustrated Lewis pairs for CO2 hydrogenation: en route for heterogeneous systems?

Catalysis plays a crucial role in advancing sustainability. The unique reactivity of frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs) is driving an ever-growing interest in the transition metal-free transformation of small molecules like CO2 into valuable products. In this area, there is a recent growing incentive to heterogenize molecular FLPs into porous solids, merging the benefits of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis - high activity, selectivity, and recyclability. Despite the progress, challenges remain in preventing deactivation, poisoning, and simplifying catalyst-product separation. This review explores the expanding field of FLPs in catalysis, covering existing molecular FLPs for CO2 hydrogenation and recent efforts to design heterogeneous porous systems from both experimental and theoretical perspectives. Section 2 discusses experimental examples of CO2 hydrogenation by molecular FLPs, starting with stoichiometric reactions and advancing to catalytic ones. It then examines attempts to immobilize FLPs in porous matrices, including siliceous solids, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), covalent organic frameworks, and disordered polymers, highlighting current limitations and challenges. Section 3 then reviews computational studies on the mechanistic details of CO2 hydrogenation, focusing on H2 splitting and hydride/proton transfer steps, summarizing efforts to establish structure-activity relationships. It also covers the computational aspects on grafting FLPs inside MOFs. Finally, Section 4 summarizes the main design principles established so far, while addressing the complexities of translating computational approaches into the experimental realm, particularly in heterogeneous systems. This section underscores the need to strengthen the dialogue between theoretical and experimental approaches in this field.

Synthesis and Photochemical Uncaging of Alkene-Protected, Polymer-Bound Vicinal Frustrated Lewis Pairs

Polymeric materials bearing Frustrated Lewis Pair (FLP) functionality are promising candidates for use as heterogeneous catalysts and adaptive materials, but synthetic access to FLP-functional polymers remains limited due to the incompatibility of FLPs with standard polymerization chemistries. Herein, we describe a synthetic approach that "cages" highly reactive vicinal phosphine-borane FLPs as covalent alkene adducts, which are stable to Ni-mediated vinyl addition polymerization. We discovered that the caged FLP adducts can be photochemically activated to liberate vicinal FLPs, enabling spatiotemporally controlled release of FLPs from polymeric precursors.

Frustrated Lewis pair-mediated hydro-dehalogenation: crucial role of non-covalent interactions

CONTEXT

Organic halides stand as invaluable reagents with diverse applications in synthetic chemistry and various industrial processes. Despite their utility, concerns arise due to their inherent toxicity. Addressing these apprehensions, hydro-dehalogenation has emerged as a promising strategy involving the replacement of halogen atoms with hydrogen atoms to transform toxic organic halides into hydrocarbons. This study delves into the computational exploration of hydro-dehalogenation reactions of benzyl halide, mediated by frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs), using density functional theory (DFT). The reactions entail the formation of FLP1 or FLP2 in the presence of TMP or lutidine with B(C6F5)3, respectively. This is followed by heterolytic cleavage of dihydrogen and subsequent reaction with benzyl halides. Non-covalent interaction analysis underscores the significance of π-π stacking and CH-π interactions in stabilizing transition states. Additionally, the activation strain model (ASM) dissects activation energies, revealing the substantial impact of strain energy on reaction barriers. Energy decomposition analysis (EDA) offers insights into the contributions of electrostatic, orbital, and dispersion energies to the overall attractive interaction energy. The investigation extends to hydro-dehalogenation reactions of ethyl halides, uncovering distinct mechanisms and activation barriers. This comprehensive analysis illuminates the intricacies of hydro-dehalogenation reactions, providing valuable insights into their mechanisms and paving the way for future studies in this field.

METHODS

Geometry optimizations were carried out at the M06-2X/def2-SVP level of theory, which was performed using the Gaussian 16 program. Solvent-corrected single-point energies were also calculated using the polarizable continuum model (PCM) at the PCM(chloroform)-M06-2X/def2-TZVP//M06-2X/def2-SVP level of theory. The Gibbs free energy correction was determined from computations performed at the M06-2X/def2-SVP level of theory. Principal interacting orbital (PIO) analysis was conducted using the NBO 6.0 software. The nature of bonding in the respective transition state (TS) structures was analyzed using atoms-in-molecules (AIM) analyses. Additionally, the presence of non-covalent interactions (NCI) was exemplified using Multiwfn software.

Theoretical Perspective on the Design of Surface Frustrated Lewis Pairs for Small-Molecule Activation

The excellent reactivity of frustrated Lewis pairs (FLP) to activate small molecules has gained increasing attention in recent decades. Though the development of surface FLP (SFLP) is prompting the application of FLP in the chemical industry, the design of SFLP with superior activity, high density, and excellent stability for small-molecule activation is still challenging. Herein, we review the progress of designing SFLP by surface engineering, screening natural SFLP, and the dynamic formation of SFLP from theoretical perspectives. We highlight the breakthrough in fine-tuning the activity, density, and stability of the designed SFLP studied by using computational methods. We also discuss future challenges and directions in designing SFLP with outstanding capabilities for small-molecule activation.

Precise Distance Control and Functionality Adjustment of Frustrated Lewis Pairs in Metal-Organic Frameworks

We report the construction of frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs) in a metal-organic framework (MOF), where both Lewis acid (LA) and Lewis base (LB) are fixed to the backbone. The anchoring of a tritopic organoboron linker as LA and a monotopic linker as LB to separate metal oxide clusters in a tetrahedron geometry allows for the precise control of distance between them. As the type of monotopic LB linker varies, pyridine, phenol, aniline, and benzyl alcohol, a series of 11 FLPs were constructed to give fixed distances of 7.1, 5.5, 5.4, and 4.8 Å, respectively, revealed by 11B-1H solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Keeping LA and LB apart by a fixed distance makes it possible to investigate the electrostatic effect by changing the functional groups in the monotopic LB linker, while the LA counterpart remains unaffected. This approach offers new chemical environments of the active site for FLP-induced catalysis.

Frustrated Lewis pairs on pentacoordinated Al3+-enriched Al2O3 promote heterolytic hydrogen activation and hydrogenation

As an emerging class of metal-free catalysts, frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs) catalysts have been greatly constructed and applied in many fields. Homogeneous FLPs have witnessed significant development, while limited heterogeneous FLPs catalysts are available. Herein, we report that heterogeneous FLPs on pentacoordinated Al3+-enriched Al2O3 readily promote the heterolytic activation of H2 and thus hydrogenation catalysis. The defect-rich Al2O3 was prepared by simple calcination of a carboxylate-containing Al precursor. Combinatorial studies confirmed the presence of rich FLPs on the surface of the defective Al2O3. In contrast to conventional alumina (γ-Al2O3), the FLP-containing Al2O3 can activate H2 in the absence of any transition metal species. More importantly, H2 was activated by surface FLPs in a heterolytic pathway, leading to the hydrogenation of styrene in a stepwise process. This work paves the way for the exploration of more underlying heterogeneous FLPs catalysts and further understanding of accurate active sites and catalytic mechanisms of heterogeneous FLPs at the molecular level.

Amorphous porous organic polymers containing main group elements

Amorphous porous organic polymers (aPOPs) are a type of highly crosslinked polymers. These polymers are generally constructed from rigid organic building blocks, which have become an important subclass of POPs with diverse applications. In the early stage of development, a wide range of carbon-based building blocks and network forming chemistry afforded a large library of aPOPs with rich structures and properties. Recently, implanting main group elements with diverse geometric structures and electronic configurations into aPOPs has proven to be a useful tool to fine-tune the structures and properties of these polymers. Herein, we outline the recent advances in the field of main group (MG)-aPOPs where main-group elements either played unique roles in tuning the structures and properties of MG-aPOPs, or offered new strategies in the synthesis of MG-aPOPs. Furthermore, this Review discusses various challenges remaining in the field from the perspectives of synthetic strategies and characterization techniques, and presents some specific studies that may potentially address the challenges.

Light-Induced Polymeric Frustrated Radical Pairs as Building Blocks for Materials and Photocatalysts

Polymeric frustrated Lewis pairs, or poly(FLP)s, have served to bridge the gap between functional polymer science and main group catalysis, pairing the uniqueness of sterically frustrated Lewis acids and bases with a polymer scaffold to create self-healing gels and recyclable catalysts. However, their utilization in radical chemistry is unprecedented. In this paper, we disclose the synthesis of polymeric frustrated radical pairs, or poly(FRP)s, by in situ photoinduction of FLP moieties, where their Lewis acidic and basic centers are tuned to promote single electron transfer (SET). Through systematic manipulation of the chemical structure, we demonstrate that inclusion of ortho-methyl groups on phosphine monomers is crucial to enable SET. The generation of radicals is evidenced by monitoring the stable polymeric phosphine radical cations via UV/vis and EPR spectroscopy. These new poly(FRP)s enable both catalytic hydrogenation and radical-mediated photocatalytic perfluoroalkylations. These polymeric radical systems open new avenues to design novel functional polymers for catalysis and photoelectrical chemistry.

Coordination Defect-Induced Frustrated Lewis Pairs in Polyoxo-metalate-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks for Efficient Catalytic Hydrogenation

Precise control of the structure and spatial distance of Lewis acid (LA) and Lewis base (LB) sites in a porous system to construct efficient solid frustrated Lewis pair (FLP) catalyst is vital for industrial application but remains challenging. Herein, we constructed FLP sites in a polyoxometalate (POM)-based metal-organic framework (MOF) by introducing coordination-defect metal nodes (LA) and surface-basic POM with abundant oxygen (LB). The well-defined and unique spatial conformation of the defective POM-based MOF ensure that the distance between LA and LB is at ~4.3 Å, a suitable distance to activate H2 . This FLP catalyst can heterolytically dissociate H2 into active Hδ- , thus exhibiting high activity in hydrogenation, which is 55 and 2.7 times as high as that of defect-free POM-based MOF and defective MOF without POM, respectively. This work provides a new avenue toward precise design multi-site catalyst to achieve specific activation of target substrate for synergistic catalysis.

CO2 -Fueled Transient Breathing Nanogels that Couple Nonequilibrium Catalytic Polymerization

Here we present a "breathing" nanogel that is fueled by CO₂ gas to perform temporally programmable catalytic polymerization. The nanogel is composed of common frustrated Lewis pair polymers (FLPs). Dynamic CO₂ -FLP gas-bridging bonds endow the nanogel with a transient volume contraction, and the resulting proximal effect of bound FLPs unlocks its catalytic capacity toward CO₂ . Reverse gas depletion via a CO₂ -participated polymerization can induce a reverse nanogel expansion, which shuts down the catalytic activity. Control of external factors (fuel level, temperature or additives) can regulate the breathing period, amplitude and lifecycle, so as to affect the catalytic polymerization. Moreover, editing the nanogel breathing procedure can sequentially evoke the copolymerization of CO₂ with different epoxide monomers preloaded therein, which allows to obtain block-tunable copolycarbonates that are unachievable by other methods. This synthetic dissipative system would be function as a prototype of gas-driven nanosynthesizer.

Porous aromatic frameworks with high Pd nanoparticles loading as efficient catalysts for the Suzuki coupling reaction

The development of efficient and recyclable heterogeneous Pd catalysts is an area of continuing attention due to their critical applications in organic synthesis and pharmaceutical production. In this study, two novel heterogeneous catalysts Pd@PAF-182 and Pd@PAF-183 were prepared by the immobilization/NaBH₄ reduction of PdCl₄^2- on hydrophilic cationic porous aromatic frameworks (PAF-182 and PAF-183), which were synthesized via a Yamamoto-type Ullmann coupling reaction from the corresponding aryl quaternary phosphonium salt monomer. Characterization by powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), solid-state Cross-Polarization Magic-Angle-Spinning Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (CP/MAS NMR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) established the structures of the as-prepared catalysts. Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) detection showed that the loading of Pd nanoparticles (Pd NPs) were 29.4 wt% for Pd@PAF-182 and 37.5 wt% for Pd@PAF-183, much higher than those of similar porous materials. Evaluation of the catalytic activity of the Pd@PAFs using Suzuki coupling as the model reaction demonstrated that as little as 0.12 mol% of Pd NPs could catalyze the Suzuki coupling with high efficiency, achieving yields up to 99% at 80 °C in 8 h. Recycling experiments also suggested that Pd@PAF-182 and Pd@PAF-183 maintained high catalytic activity with negligible leaching of Pd NPs after five cycles.

Ultramicroporous Organophosphorus Polymers via Self-Accelerating P-C Coupling Reactions: Kinetic Effects on Crosslinking Environments and Porous Structures

Porous organic polymers (POPs) have drawn significant attention in diverse applications. However, factors affecting the heterogeneous polymerization and porosity of POPs are still not well understood. Herein, we report a new strategy to construct porous organophosphorus polymers (POPPs) with high surface areas (1283 m²/g) and ultramicroporous structures (0.67 nm). The strategy harnesses an efficient transition-metal-catalyzed phosphorus-carbon (P-C) coupling reaction at the trigonal pyramidal P-center, which is distinct from the typical carbon-carbon coupling reaction utilized in the synthesis of POPs. As the first kinetic study on the coupling reaction of POPs, we uncovered a self-accelerating reaction characteristic, which is controlled by the choice of bases and catalysts. The self-accelerating characteristic of the P-C coupling reaction is beneficial for the high surface area and uniform ultramicroporosity of POPPs. The direct crosslinking of the P-centers allows ³¹P solid-state (ss)NMR experiments to unambiguously reveal the crosslinking environments of POPPs. Leveraging on the kinetic studies and ³¹P ssNMR studies, we were able to reveal the kinetic effects of the P-C coupling reaction on both the crosslinking environments and the porous structures of POPPs. Furthermore, our studies show that the CO₂ uptake capacity of POPPs is highly dependent on their porous structures. Overall, our studies paves the way to design new POPs with better controlled chemical and ultramicroporous structures, which have potential applications for CO₂ capture and separation.

Defect-Regulated Frustrated-Lewis-Pair Behavior of Boron Nitride in Ambient Pressure Hydrogen Activation

The construction of heterogeneous frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs) with performance comparable to or surpassing the homogeneous counterparts in H₂ activation is a long-standing challenge. Herein, sterically hindered Lewis acid ("B" center) and Lewis base ("N" center) sites were anchored within the rigid lattice of highly crystalline hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) scaffolds. The active sites were created via precision defect regulation during the molten-salt-involved (NaNH₂ and NaBH₄) h-BN construction procedure. The as-afforded h-BN scaffolds achieved highly efficient H₂/D₂ activation and dissociation under ambient pressure via FLP-like behavior, and attractive catalytic efficiency in hydrogenation reactions surpassing the current heterogeneous analogues.

A porous organic polymer supported Pd/Cu bimetallic catalyst for heterogeneous oxidation of alkynes to 1,2-diketones

A reusable Pd/Cu bimetal-loaded porous organic polymer (Pd/Cu@POP–POPh3) has been developed for heterogeneous oxidation of various alkynes to afford the corresponding 1,2-diketones in high to excellent yields.

Diverse Uses of the Reaction of Frustrated Lewis Pair (FLP) with Hydrogen

The articulation of the notion of "frustrated Lewis pairs" (FLPs) emerged from the discovery that H₂ can be reversibly activated by combinations of sterically encumbered main group Lewis acids and bases. This has prompted numerous studies focused on various perturbations of the Lewis acid/base combinations and the applications to organic reductions. This Perspective focuses on the new directions and developments that are emerging from this FLP chemistry involving hydrogen. Three areas are discussed including new applications and approaches to FLP reductions, the reductions of small molecules, and the advances in heterogeneous FLP systems. These foci serve to illustrate that despite having its roots in main group chemistry, this simple concept of FLPs is being applied across the discipline.

Construction of frustrated Lewis pairs on carbon nitride nanosheets for catalytic hydrogenation of acetylene

Here, we studied Al or B atom-doped carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄ and C₂N) as catalysts for H₂ activation and acetylene hydrogenation using density functional theory calculations. The Al or B could be assembled with the surface N atoms of carbon nitride to form diverse frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs). The results show that Al-N FLPs had lower barriers of H₂ activation in comparison with B-N FLPs. The heterolytic H₂ dissociation catalyzed by Al-N FLPs led to the formation of Al-H and N-H species. The Al-H species were highly active in the first hydrogenation of acetylene to C₂H₃*, yielding a mild barrier, while in the second hydrogenation step, the reaction between C₂H₃ and the H of N-H species caused a relatively high barrier. Electronic structure analysis demonstrated the electron transfer in the heterolytic H₂ cleavage and explained the activity differences in various FLPs. The results suggest that Al with the surface N of carbon nitride can act as an FLP to catalyze the H₂ activation and acetylene hydrogenation, thus providing a new strategy for the future development of noble metal-free hydrogenation catalysts.

Metal Effect Meets Volcano Plots: A DFT Study on Tris(phosphino)borane-Transition Metal Complexes Catalyzed H2 Activation

Bifunctional transition metal complexes are of particular interest in metal-ligand cooperative activation of small molecules. As a novel type of bifunctional catalyst, Lewis acid transition metal (LA-TM) complexes have attracted increasing interest in hydrogen activation and storage. To advance the catalyst design, herein the metal effect of LA-TM complexes on the hydrogen activation has been systematically studied with a series of tris(phosphino)borane (TPB) complexes with V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, and Ni as metal centers. The metal effect not only influences the mechanism of hydrogen activation, but also notably casts a volcano plot for the activity. TPB complexes of V, Cr, Mn, Fe, and Co tend to activate H₂ through a stepwise mechanism, while TPB-Ni prefers a synergetic mechanism for H₂ activation. More importantly, the metal effect significantly influences the activity of H₂ activation and the formation of the LA-H-TM bridging hydride. The trend of changes in the LA-H-TM structures, the second-order perturbation stabilization energies, and the Laplacian bond orders, along with different metals (from V to Ni), are all interestingly constitute volcano plots for the performance of TPB-TM complexes catalyzed H₂ activation. TPB-Mn and TPB-Fe are found to be the optimal catalysts among the discussed TPB-TM complexes. The volcano plots disclosed for the metal effects should be informative and instructive for homogeneous and heterogeneous LA-TM catalysts development.

Induced Active Sites by Adsorbate in Zeotype Materials

There has been a long debate on how and where active sites are created for molecular adsorption and catalysis in zeolites, which underpin many important industrial applications. It is well accepted that Lewis acidic sites (LASs) and basic sites (LBSs) as active sites in pristine zeolites are generally believed to be the extra-framework Al species and residue anion (OH^-) species formed at fixed crystallographic positions after their synthesis. However, the dynamic interactions of adsorbates/reactants with pristine zeotype materials to "create" sites during real conditions remain largely unexplored. Herein, direct experimental observation of the establishment of induced active sites in silicoaluminophosphate (SAPO) by an adsorbate is for the first time made, which contradicts the traditional view of the fixed active sites in zeotype materials. Evidence shows that an induced frustrated Lewis pair (FLP, three-coordinated framework Al as LAS and SiO (H) as LBS) can be transiently favored for heterolytic molecular binding/reactions of competitive polar adsorbates due to their ineffective orbital overlap in the rigid framework. High-resolution magic-angle-spinning solid-state NMR, synchrotron X-ray diffraction, neutron powder diffraction, in situ diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy, and ab initio molecular dynamics demonstrate the transformation of a typical Brønsted acid site (Al(OH)Si) in SAPO zeolites to new induced FLP structure for hetereolytic binding upon adsorption of a strong polar adsorbate. Our unprecedented finding opens up a new avenue to understanding the dynamic establishment of active sites for adsorption or chemical reactions under molecular bombardment of zeolitic structures.

Phosphorus containing porous organic polymers: synthetic techniques and applications in organic synthesis and catalysis

The phosphorus-containing porous organic polymer is a trending material for the synthesis of heterogeneous catalysts. Decades of investigations have established phosphines as versatile ligands in homogeneous catalysis. Recently, phosphine-based heterogeneous catalysts were synthesized to exploit the same electronic properties while leveraging extra stability and reusability. In the last few decades, the catalysts were applied in diverse organic transformations, including hydroformylation, hydrogenation, C-C, C-N and C-X coupling, hydrosilylation, oxidative-carbonylation reactions, and so on. However, even though these polymers possess a multifunctional character, they face multiple synthetic issues in controlling the pore size, increasing the surface area, and creating a single type of active site. This review summarizes the developments in this field over the last few decades, highlighting the current limitation and future scope.

Quinone-Enriched Conjugated Microporous Polymer as an Organic Cathode for Li-Ion Batteries

Among various organic cathode materials, C═O group-enriched structures have attracted wide attention worldwide. However, small organic molecules have long suffered from dissolving in electrolytes during charge-discharge cycles. π-Conjugated microporous polymers (CMPs) become one solution to address this issue. However, the synthesis strategy for CMPs with rich C═O groups and stable backbones remains a challenge. In this study, a novel CMP enriched with C═O units was synthesized through a highly efficient Diels-Alder reaction. The as-prepared CMP exhibited a fused carbon backbone and a semiconductive characteristic with a band gap of 1.4 eV. When used as an organic electrode material in LIBs, the insoluble and robust fused structure caused such CMPs to exhibit remarkable cycling stability (a 96.1% capacity retention at 0.2 A g^-1 after 200 cycles and a 94.8% capacity retention at 1 A g^-1 after 1500 cycles), superior lithium-ion diffusion coefficient (5.30 × 10^-11 cm² s^-1), and excellent rate capability (95.8 mAh g^-1 at 1 A g^-1). This study provided a novel synthetic method for fabricating quinone-enriched fused CMPs, which can be used as LIB cathode materials.

Silica Nanopowder Supported Frustrated Lewis Pairs for CO2 Capture and Conversion to Formic Acid

Treatment of hydroxylated silica nanopowders S1 and allyl-functionalized silica nanopowders S2 with 3-(diphenylborano)- or 3-bis(pentafluorophenylborano)propyltrimethoxysilane or 2-(diphenylphosphino)- or 2-(dicyclohexylphosphino)ethyltriethoxysilane generates silica nanopowder supported Lewis acids S3 and silica nanopowder supported Lewis bases S4. These surfaces were characterized by ¹³C, ¹¹B, and ³¹P cross-polarization magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (CP MAS NMR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR FTIR). When S3 is combined with solution-phase Lewis bases PR₃ (R = C₆F₅, C₆H₅, mesityl), six associated silica nanopowder supported frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs) are formed. In another set of six reactions, the interactions between the supported Lewis bases S4 and solution-phase Lewis acids BR₃ with R = C₆F₅, C₆H₅, mesityl produced six more associated supported FLPs. The capture of CO₂ by these FLPs producing FLP-CO₂ Lewis pair adducts S5 and S6 were highlighted by ATR FTIR, and it was found that FLP S5e with R = C₆H₅ on both the supported Lewis acid and solution-phase Lewis base trapped the largest quantities of CO₂ on the silica nanopowder supports. Conversion of CO₂ to HCOOH was achieved by first activating H₂ to generate activated FLP-H₂ surfaces S7 and S9. Addition of CO₂ then generated HCOOH via the silica nanopowder supported FLP-HCOOH adducts S8 and S10. Qualitative identification of HCOOH generation was achieved by ATR FTIR measurements, and surface 10b with R = C₆H₅ proved to be the most successful silica nanopowder surface bound FLP in HCOOH generation. In some cases, diborano formates (-BO(CH)OB-) S11 and S12 were also identified as side products during HCOOH formation. Spectroscopic characterization of purposefully synthesized S11 and S12 included ¹¹B and ³¹P CP MAS NMR.

Porous Aromatic Framework Nanosheets Anchored with Lewis Pairs for Efficient and Recyclable Heterogeneous Catalysis

Lewis pairs (LPs) with outstanding performance for nonmetal-mediated catalysis reactions have high fundamental interest and remarkable application prospects. However, their solubility characteristics lead to instability and deactivation upon recycling. Here, the layered porous aromatic framework (PAF-6), featuring two kinds of Lewis base sites (NPiperazine and NTriazine), is exfoliated into few-layer nanosheets to form the LP entity with the Lewis acid. After comparison with various porous networks and verification by density functional theory (DFT) calculations, the NTriazine atom in the specific spatial environment is determined to preferably coordinate with the electron-deficient boron compound in a sterically hindered pattern. LP-bare porous product displays high catalytic activity for the hydrogenation of both olefin and imine compounds, and demonstrates ≈100% activity after 10 successful cycles in hydrogenation reactions. Considering the natural advantage of porous organic frameworks to construct LP groups opens up novel prospects for preparing other nonmetallic heterogeneous catalysts for efficient and recyclable catalysis.

ROMP-Boranes as Moisture-Tolerant and Recyclable Lewis Acid Organocatalysts

Although widely used in catalysis, the multistep syntheses and high loadings typically employed are limiting broader implementation of highly active tailor-made arylborane Lewis acids and Lewis pairs. Attempts at developing recyclable systems have thus far met with limited success, as general and versatile platforms are yet to be developed. We demonstrate a novel approach that is based on the excellent control and functional group tolerance of ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP). The ROMP of highly Lewis acidic borane-functionalized phenylnorbornenes afforded both a soluble linear copolymer and a cross-linked organogel. The polymers proved highly efficient as recyclable catalysts in the reductive N-alkylation of arylamines under mild conditions and at exceptionally low catalyst loadings. The modular design presented herein can be readily adapted to other finely tuned triarylboranes, enabling wide applications of ROMP-borane polymers as well-defined supported organocatalysts.

Rapid and Scalable Access to Sequence-Controlled DHDM Multiblock Copolymers by FLP Polymerization

An immortal N-(diphenylphosphanyl)-1,3-diisopropyl-4,5-dimethyl-1,3-dihydro-2H-imidazol-2-imine/diisobutyl (2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenoxy) aluminum (P(NIⁱ Pr)Ph₂ /(BHT)Alⁱ Bu₂ )-based frustrated Lewis pair (FLP) polymerization strategy is presented for rapid and scalable synthesis of the sequence-controlled multiblock copolymers at room temperature. Without addition of extra initiator or catalyst and complex synthetic procedure, this method enabled a tripentacontablock copolymer (n=53, k=4, dp_n =50) to be achieved with the highest reported block number (n=53) and molecular weight (M_n =310 kg mol^-1 ) within 30 min. More importantly, this FLP polymerization strategy provided access to the multiblock copolymers with tailored properties by precisely adjusting the monomer sequence and block numbers.

Control of Nanomorphology in Fullerene-Free Organic Solar Cells by Lewis Acid Doping with Enhanced Photovoltaic Efficiency

Generating desired efficiency enhancements in organic solar cells (OSCs) by charge-transfer doping requires to obtain modified optoelectronic properties while retaining the favorable nanomorphology. We report a thermally assisted doping based on Lewis acid tris(pentafluorophenyl)-borane (BCF) as a p-dopant for two groups of OSCs comprising the PBDB-TF and PBDB-T donors and a nonfullerene acceptor IT-4F. We found that the face-on molecular packing in the PBDB-TF:IT-4F blend or neat PBDB-TF donor films is favorably modified with the formation of frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs) in the donor, which is in contrast to the hampered π-π stacking in the doped PBDB-T film. The different impacts of BCF dopants on the morphology lead to contrasting photovoltaic behaviors where the PBDB-TF-based devices receive enhanced power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) in the presence of BCF, while reduction of efficiencies is observed in the PBDB-T device. In the best doping conditions with the proposed hot-film deposition, we achieve a boosted PCE of 14.1% in PBDB-TF:IT-4F solar cells at low BCF concentrations. Based on the same fluorinated donor, the described BCF doping also applies to NF-solar cells based on the NF-acceptor Y6, leading to an increase in the PCE to 16.0%. Our results suggest that controlling the degree of FLP formation in the donor component with the addition of BCF is key to obtaining desired improvements on nanomorphology and relevant photophysical properties in OSCs.

Lewis pairs polymerization of polar vinyl monomers

The globally increasing demands for polymer materials stimulate the significantly intense attention focused on the Lewis pair polymerization (LPP) of various polar vinyl monomers catalyzed by Lewis pairs (LPs) composed of Lewis acid (LA) and Lewis base (LB). According to the degree of interaction between LA and LB, LPs could be divided into classical Lewis adduct (CLA), interacting Lewis pair (ILP) and frustrated Lewis pair (FLP). Regulation of the Lewis basicity, Lewis acidity, and steric effects of these LPs has a significant impact on the polymer chain initiation, propagation and termination as well as chain transfer reaction during polymerization. Compared with other polymerization strategies, LPP has shown several unique advantages towards the polymerization of polar vinyl monomers such as high activity, control or livingness, mild conditions, and complete chemo- or regioselectivity. We will comprehensively review the recent advances achieved in the LPP of polar vinyl monomers according to the classification of the employed LPs based on different LAs, by highlighting the key polymerization results, polymerization mechanisms as well as the currently unmet challenges and the future research directions of LPP chemistry.

A molecular electron density theory study of the insertion of CO into frustrated Lewis pair boron-amidines: a [4 + 1] cycloaddition reaction

The insertion of CO into hydrogenated boron-amidine 1 yielding five-membered diazaborolone (5DAB) 3 has been studied within the molecular electron density theory (MEDT) at the DFT ωB97X-D/6-311G(d,p) level. This is a domino process comprised of two consecutive reactions: (i) the dehydrogenation of 1 yielding the frustrated Lewis pair (FLP) boron-amidine 4, which quickly equilibrates with four-membered diazaborolone (4DAB) 2; and (ii) the addition of CO into FLP 4, yielding the final 5DAB 3. Analysis of the Gibbs free energies indicates that the extrusion of H2 demands a high ΔG≠ of 28.6 kcal·mol-1, being endergonic by 6.7 kcal·mol-1. The subsequent addition of CO into FLP 4 presents a low ΔG≠ of 15.0 kcal·mol-1; formation of 5DAB 3 being exergonic by -5.7 kcal·mol-1 from hydrogenated boron-amidine 1. An analysis of the bonding changes along the insertion of CO in a smaller FLP model indicates that this reaction can be considered a [4 + 1] cycloaddition reaction taking place via a five-membered pseudocyclic transition state associated with a two-stage one-step mechanism. Analysis of the conceptual DFT reactivity indices suggests that the initial attack of CO on FLP 4 is an acid/base process in which the carbenoid carbonyl character allows CO to participate as a Lewis base, rather than a nucleophilic/electrophilic interaction. The results arising from the analysis of the Parr functions, however, coincide with this behaviour.