Radical Scavenging Could Answer the Challenge Posed by Electron-Electron Dipolar Interactions in the Cryptochrome Compass Model

Avian cryptochrome 4 binds superoxide

Flavin-binding cryptochromes are blue-light sensitive photoreceptors that have been implicated with magnetoreception in some species. The photocycle involves an intra-protein photo-reduction of the flavin cofactor, generating a magnetosensitive radical pair, and its subsequent re-oxidation. Superoxide (O2 • - ) is generated in the re-oxidation with molecular oxygen. The resulting O2 • - -containing radical pairs have also been hypothesised to underpin various magnetosensitive traits, but due to fast spin relaxation when tumbling in solution would require immobilisation. We here describe our insights in the binding of superoxide to cryptochrome 4 from C. livia based on extensive all-atom molecular dynamics studies and density-functional theory calculations. The positively charged "crypt" region that leads to the flavin binding pocket transiently binds O2 • - at 5 flexible binding sites centred on arginine residues. Typical binding times amounted to tens of nanoseconds, but exceptional binding events extended to several hundreds of nanoseconds and slowed the rotational diffusion, thereby realising rotational correlation times as large as 1 ns. The binding sites are particularly efficient in scavenging superoxide escaping from a putative generation site close to the flavin-cofactor, possibly implying a functional relevance. We discuss our findings in view of a potential magnetosensitivity of biological flavin semiquinone/superoxide radical pairs.

Understanding the Red Shift in the Absorption Spectrum of the FAD Cofactor in ClCry4 Protein

It is still a puzzle that has not been entirely solved how migratory birds utilize the Earth's magnetic field for biannual migration. The most consistent explanation thus far is rooted in the modulation of the biological function of the cryptochrome 4 (Cry4) protein by an external magnetic field. This phenomenon is closely linked with the flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) cofactor that is noncovalently bound in the protein. Cry4 is activated by blue light, which is absorbed by the FAD cofactor. Subsequent electron and proton transfers trigger radical pair formation in the protein, which is sensitive to the external magnetic field. An important long-lasting redox state of the FAD cofactor is the signaling (FADH•) state, which is present after the transient electron transfer steps have been completed. Recent experimental efforts succeeded in crystallizing the Cry4 protein from Columbia livia (ClCry4) with all of the important residues needed for protein photoreduction. This specific crystallization of Cry4 protein so far is the only avian cryptochrome crystal structure available, which, however, has great similarity to the Cry4 proteins of night migratory birds. The previous experimental studies of the ClCry4 protein included the absorption properties of the protein in its different redox states. The absorption spectrum of the FADH• state demonstrated a peculiar red shift compared to the photoabsorption properties of the FAD cofactor in its FADH• state in other Cry proteins from other species. The aim of this study is to understand this red shift by employing the tools of computational microscopy and, in particular, a QM/MM approach that relies on the polarizable embedding approximation.

The Effect of Spin Relaxation on Magnetic Compass Sensitivity in ErCry4a

This study explores the impact of thermal motion on the magnetic compass mechanism in migratory birds, focusing on the radical pair mechanism within cryptochrome photoreceptors. The coherence of radical pairs, crucial for magnetic field inference, is curbed by spin relaxation induced by intra-protein motion. Molecular dynamics simulations, density-functional-theory-based calculations, and spin dynamics calculations were employed, utilizing Bloch-Redfield-Wangsness (BRW) relaxation theory, to investigate compass sensitivity. Previous research hypothesized that European robin's cryptochrome 4a (ErCry4a) optimized intra-protein motion to minimize spin relaxation, enhancing magnetic sensing compared to the plant Arabidopsis thaliana's cryptochrome 1 (AtCry1). Different correlation times of the nuclear hyperfine coupling constants in AtCry1 and ErCry4a were indeed found, leading to distinct radical pair recombination yields in the two species, with ErCry4a showing optimized sensitivity. However, this optimization is likely negligible in realistic spin systems with numerous nuclear spins. Beyond insights in magnetic sensing, the study presents a detailed method employing molecular dynamics simulations to assess for spin relaxation effects on chemical reactions with realistically modelled protein motion, relevant for studying radical pair reactions at finite temperature.

Molecular and Supramolecular Materials: From Light-Harvesting to Quantum Information Science and Technology

The past two decades have witnessed immense advances in quantum information technology (QIT), benefited by advances in physics, chemistry, biology, and materials science and engineering. It is intriguing to consider whether these diverse molecular and supramolecular structures and materials, partially inspired by quantum effects as observed in sophisticated biological systems such as light-harvesting complexes in photosynthesis and the magnetic compass of migratory birds, might play a role in future QIT. If so, how? Herein, we review materials and specify the relationship between structures and quantum properties, and we identify the challenges and limitations that have restricted the intersection of QIT and chemical materials. Examples are broken down into two categories: materials for quantum sensing where nonclassical function is observed on the molecular scale and systems where nonclassical phenomena are present due to intermolecular interactions. We discuss challenges for materials chemistry and make comparisons to related systems found in nature. We conclude that if chemical materials become relevant for QIT, they will enable quite new kinds of properties and functions.

Driven Radical Motion Enhances Cryptochrome Magnetoreception: Toward Live Quantum Sensing

The mechanism underlying magnetoreception has long eluded explanation. A popular hypothesis attributes this sense to the quantum coherent spin dynamics and spin-selective recombination reactions of radical pairs in the protein cryptochrome. However, concerns about the validity of the hypothesis have been raised because unavoidable inter-radical interactions, such as the strong electron-electron dipolar coupling, appear to suppress its sensitivity. We demonstrate that sensitivity can be restored by driving the spin system through a modulation of the inter-radical distance. It is shown that this dynamical process markedly enhances geomagnetic field sensitivity in strongly coupled radical pairs via Landau-Zener-Stückelberg-Majorana transitions between singlet and triplet states. These findings suggest that a "live" harmonically driven magnetoreceptor can be more sensitive than its "dead" static counterpart.

The amphibian magnetic sense(s)

Sensitivity to the earth's magnetic field is the least understood of the major sensory systems, despite being virtually ubiquitous in animals and of widespread interest to investigators in a wide range of fields from behavioral ecology to quantum physics. Although research on the use of magnetic cues by migratory birds, fish, and sea turtles is more widely known, much of our current understanding of the functional properties of vertebrate magnetoreception has come from research on amphibians. Studies of amphibians established the presence of a light-dependent magnetic compass, a second non-light-dependent mechanism involving particles of magnetite and/or maghemite, and an interaction between these two magnetoreception mechanisms that underlies the "map" component of homing. Simulated magnetic displacement experiments demonstrated the use of a high-resolution magnetic map for short-range homing to breeding ponds requiring a sampling strategy to detect weak spatial gradients in the magnetic field despite daily temporal variation at least an order of magnitude greater. Overall, reliance on a magnetic map for short-range homing places greater demands on the underlying sensory detection, processing, and memory mechanisms than comparable mechanisms used by long-distance migrants. Moreover, unlike sea turtles and migratory birds, amphibians are exceptionally well suited to serve as model organisms in which to characterize the molecular and biophysical mechanisms underlying the light-dependent 'quantum compass'.

Radical triads, not pairs, may explain effects of hypomagnetic fields on neurogenesis

Adult hippocampal neurogenesis and hippocampus-dependent cognition in mice have been found to be adversely affected by hypomagnetic field exposure. The effect concurred with a reduction of reactive oxygen species in the absence of the geomagnetic field. A recent theoretical study suggests a mechanistic interpretation of this phenomenon in the framework of the Radical Pair Mechanism. According to this model, a flavin-superoxide radical pair, born in the singlet spin configuration, undergoes magnetic field-dependent spin dynamics such that the pair's recombination is enhanced as the applied magnetic field is reduced. This model has two ostensible weaknesses: a) the assumption of a singlet initial state is irreconcilable with known reaction pathways generating such radical pairs, and b) the model neglects the swift spin relaxation of free superoxide, which abolishes any magnetic sensitivity in geomagnetic/hypomagnetic fields. We here suggest that a model based on a radical triad and the assumption of a secondary radical scavenging reaction can, in principle, explain the phenomenon without unnatural assumptions, thus providing a coherent explanation of hypomagnetic field effects in biology.

Magnetic field effects in biology from the perspective of the radical pair mechanism

Hundreds of studies have found that weak magnetic fields can significantly influence various biological systems. However, the underlying mechanisms behind these phenomena remain elusive. Remarkably, the magnetic energies implicated in these effects are much smaller than thermal energies. Here, we review these observations, and we suggest an explanation based on the radical pair mechanism, which involves the quantum dynamics of the electron and nuclear spins of transient radical molecules. While the radical pair mechanism has been studied in detail in the context of avian magnetoreception, the studies reviewed here show that magnetosensitivity is widespread throughout biology. We review magnetic field effects on various physiological functions, discussing static, hypomagnetic and oscillating magnetic fields, as well as isotope effects. We then review the radical pair mechanism as a potential unifying model for the described magnetic field effects, and we discuss plausible candidate molecules for the radical pairs. We review recent studies proposing that the radical pair mechanism provides explanations for isotope effects in xenon anaesthesia and lithium treatment of hyperactivity, magnetic field effects on the circadian clock, and hypomagnetic field effects on neurogenesis and microtubule assembly. We conclude by discussing future lines of investigation in this exciting new area of quantum biology.

Ab initio derivation of flavin hyperfine interactions for the protein magnetosensor cryptochrome

The radicals derived from flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) are a corner stone of recent hypotheses about magnetoreception, including the compass of migratory songbirds. These models attribute a magnetic sense to coherent spin dynamics in radical pairs within the flavo-protein cryptochrome. The primary determinant of sensitivity and directionality of this process are the hyperfine interactions of the involved radicals. Here, we present a comprehensive computational study of the hyperfine couplings in the protonated and unprotonated FAD radicals in cryptochrome 4 from C. livia. We combine long (800 ns) molecular dynamics trajectories to accurate quantum chemistry calculations. Hyperfine parameters are derived using auxiliary density functional theory applied to cluster and hybrid QM/MM (Quantum Mechanics/Molecular Mechanics) models comprising the FAD and its significant surrounding environment, as determined by a detailed sensitivity analysis. Thanks to this protocol we elucidate the sensitivity of the hyperfine interaction parameters to structural fluctuations and the polarisation effect of the protein environment. We find that the ensemble-averaged hyperfine interactions are predominantly governed by thermally induced geometric distortions of the flavin. We discuss our results in view of the expected performance of these radicals as part of a magnetoreceptor. Our data could be used to parametrize spin Hamiltonians including not only average values but also standard deviations.

Radical pairs may explain reactive oxygen species-mediated effects of hypomagnetic field on neurogenesis

Exposures to a hypomagnetic field can affect biological processes. Recently, it has been observed that hypomagnetic field exposure can adversely affect adult hippocampal neurogenesis and hippocampus-dependent cognition in mice. In the same study, the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in hypomagnetic field effects has been demonstrated. However, the mechanistic reasons behind this effect are not clear. This study proposes a radical pair mechanism based on a flavin-superoxide radical pair to explain the modulation of ROS production and the attenuation of adult hippocampal neurogenesis in a hypomagnetic field. The results of our calculations favor a singlet-born radical pair over a triplet-born radical pair. Our model predicts hypomagnetic field effects on the triplet/singlet yield of comparable strength as the effects observed in experimental studies on adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Our predictions are in qualitative agreement with experimental results on superoxide concentration and other observed ROS effects. We also predict the effects of applied magnetic fields and oxygen isotopic substitution on adult hippocampal neurogenesis.

Observations about utilitarian coherence in the avian compass

It is hypothesised that the avian compass relies on spin dynamics in a recombining radical pair. Quantum coherence has been suggested as a resource to this process that nature may utilise to achieve increased compass sensitivity. To date, the true functional role of coherence in these natural systems has remained speculative, lacking insights from sufficiently complex models. Here, we investigate realistically large radical pair models with up to 21 nuclear spins, inspired by the putative magnetosensory protein cryptochrome. By varying relative radical orientations, we reveal correlations of several coherence measures with compass fidelity. Whilst electronic coherence is found to be an ineffective predictor of compass sensitivity, a robust correlation of compass sensitivity and a global coherence measure is established. The results demonstrate the importance of realistic models, and appropriate choice of coherence measure, in elucidating the quantum nature of the avian compass.

Anisotropic magnetic field effects in the re-oxidation of cryptochrome in the presence of scavenger radicals

The avian compass and many other of nature's magnetoreceptive traits are widely ascribed to the protein cryptochrome. There, magnetosensitivity is thought to emerge as the spin dynamics of radicals in the applied magnetic field enters in competition with their recombination. The first and dominant model makes use of a radical pair. However, recent studies have suggested that magnetosensitivity could be markedly enhanced for a radical triad, the primary radical pair of which undergoes a spin-selective recombination reaction with a third radical. Here, we test the practicality of this supposition for the reoxidation reaction of the reduced FAD cofactor in cryptochrome, which has been implicated with light-independent magnetoreception but appears irreconcilable with the classical radical pair mechanism (RPM). Based on the available realistic cryptochrome structures, we predict the magnetosensitivity of radical triad systems comprising the flavin semiquinone, the superoxide, and a tyrosine or ascorbyl scavenger radical. We consider many hyperfine-coupled nuclear spins, the relative orientation and placement of the radicals, their coupling by the electron-electron dipolar interaction, and spin relaxation in the superoxide radical in the limit of instantaneous decoherence, which have not been comprehensively considered before. We demonstrate that these systems can provide superior magnetosensitivity under realistic conditions, with implications for dark-state cryptochrome magnetoreception and other biological magneto- and isotope-sensitive radical recombination reactions.