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Suparpprom C, Vilaivan T. Perspectives on conformationally constrained peptide nucleic acid (PNA): insights into the structural design, properties and applications. RSC Chem Biol 2022; 3:648-697. [PMID: 35755191 PMCID: PMC9175113 DOI: 10.1039/d2cb00017b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Peptide nucleic acid or PNA is a synthetic DNA mimic that contains a sequence of nucleobases attached to a peptide-like backbone derived from N-2-aminoethylglycine. The semi-rigid PNA backbone acts as a scaffold that arranges the nucleobases in a proper orientation and spacing so that they can pair with their complementary bases on another DNA, RNA, or even PNA strand perfectly well through the standard Watson-Crick base-pairing. The electrostatically neutral backbone of PNA contributes to its many unique properties that make PNA an outstanding member of the xeno-nucleic acid family. Not only PNA can recognize its complementary nucleic acid strand with high affinity, but it does so with excellent specificity that surpasses the specificity of natural nucleic acids and their analogs. Nevertheless, there is still room for further improvements of the original PNA in terms of stability and specificity of base-pairing, direction of binding, and selectivity for different types of nucleic acids, among others. This review focuses on attempts towards the rational design of new generation PNAs with superior performance by introducing conformational constraints such as a ring or a chiral substituent in the PNA backbone. A large collection of conformationally rigid PNAs developed during the past three decades are analyzed and compared in terms of molecular design and properties in relation to structural data if available. Applications of selected modified PNA in various areas such as targeting of structured nucleic acid targets, supramolecular scaffold, biosensing and bioimaging, and gene regulation will be highlighted to demonstrate how the conformation constraint can improve the performance of the PNA. Challenges and future of the research in the area of constrained PNA will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaturong Suparpprom
- Department of Chemistry and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Naresuan University, Tah-Poe District, Muang Phitsanulok 65000 Thailand
- Organic Synthesis Research Unit, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University Phayathai Road Pathumwan Bangkok 10330 Thailand
| | - Tirayut Vilaivan
- Department of Chemistry and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Naresuan University, Tah-Poe District, Muang Phitsanulok 65000 Thailand
- Organic Synthesis Research Unit, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University Phayathai Road Pathumwan Bangkok 10330 Thailand
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Adam AT, Fronczek FR, Colby DA. Synthesis of β-Fluoro-α,β-Unsaturated Amides from the Fragmentation of Morpholine 3,3,3-Trifluoropropanamide by Grignard Reagents. Org Lett 2020; 22:2630-2633. [PMID: 32181669 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.0c00599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Fluoroalkenes serve as bioisosteres to peptide bonds and are resistant to hydrolytic enzymes in vivo. Currently, α-fluoro-α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds are readily accessible via general synthetic methods; however, β-fluoro-α,β-unsaturated carbonyl groups are more challenging to construct. To address this need, we have designed a reagent, morpholine 3,3,3-trifluoropropanamide, that creates (E)-β-fluoro-α,β-unsaturated amides upon the addition of many commonly used Grignard reagents. Reactions with this reagent enable a high level of stereocontrol in the fluoroalkene product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amna T Adam
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - Frank R Fronczek
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - David A Colby
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi 38677, United States
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Meanwell NA. Fluorine and Fluorinated Motifs in the Design and Application of Bioisosteres for Drug Design. J Med Chem 2018; 61:5822-5880. [PMID: 29400967 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b01788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1288] [Impact Index Per Article: 214.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The electronic properties and relatively small size of fluorine endow it with considerable versatility as a bioisostere and it has found application as a substitute for lone pairs of electrons, the hydrogen atom, and the methyl group while also acting as a functional mimetic of the carbonyl, carbinol, and nitrile moieties. In this context, fluorine substitution can influence the potency, conformation, metabolism, membrane permeability, and P-gp recognition of a molecule and temper inhibition of the hERG channel by basic amines. However, as a consequence of the unique properties of fluorine, it features prominently in the design of higher order structural metaphors that are more esoteric in their conception and which reflect a more sophisticated molecular construction that broadens biological mimesis. In this Perspective, applications of fluorine in the construction of bioisosteric elements designed to enhance the in vitro and in vivo properties of a molecule are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas A Meanwell
- Discovery Chemistry and Molecular Technologies Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development P.O. Box 4000, Princeton , New Jersey 08543-4000 , United States
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Umezawa N, Horai Y, Imamura Y, Kawakubo M, Nakahira M, Kato N, Muramatsu A, Yoshikawa Y, Yoshikawa K, Higuchi T. Structurally Diverse Polyamines: Solid-Phase Synthesis and Interaction with DNA. Chembiochem 2015; 16:1811-9. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201500121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Usuki Y, Wakamatsu Y, Yabu M, Iio H. Access to Fluorine-Containing Asparagine and Glutamine Analogues via Palladium-Catalyzed Formate Reduction. ASIAN J ORG CHEM 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ajoc.201402164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Prunier A, Calata C, Legros J, Maddaluno J, Pfund E, Lequeux T. Aza-Michael Access to Fluoroalkylidene Analogues of Biomolecules. J Org Chem 2013; 78:8083-97. [DOI: 10.1021/jo401356j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anaïs Prunier
- Laboratoire de Chimie Moléculaire et Thioorganique, CNRS UMR 6507 & FR3038, Normandie Université, UNICAEN, ENSICAEN, 6 Boulevard du Maréchal Juin, 14050 Caen Cedex, France
| | - Charlène Calata
- Laboratoire de Chimie Moléculaire et Thioorganique, CNRS UMR 6507 & FR3038, Normandie Université, UNICAEN, ENSICAEN, 6 Boulevard du Maréchal Juin, 14050 Caen Cedex, France
| | - Julien Legros
- COBRA UMR 6014 CNRS & FR3038, INSA et Université de Rouen, 1 rue Tesnière, 76821 Mont Saint Aignan, France
| | - Jacques Maddaluno
- COBRA UMR 6014 CNRS & FR3038, INSA et Université de Rouen, 1 rue Tesnière, 76821 Mont Saint Aignan, France
| | - Emmanuel Pfund
- Laboratoire de Chimie Moléculaire et Thioorganique, CNRS UMR 6507 & FR3038, Normandie Université, UNICAEN, ENSICAEN, 6 Boulevard du Maréchal Juin, 14050 Caen Cedex, France
| | - Thierry Lequeux
- Laboratoire de Chimie Moléculaire et Thioorganique, CNRS UMR 6507 & FR3038, Normandie Université, UNICAEN, ENSICAEN, 6 Boulevard du Maréchal Juin, 14050 Caen Cedex, France
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Plöger TA, von Kiedrowski G. Improved Large-Scale Liquid-Phase Synthesis and High-Temperature NMR Characterization of Short (F-)PNAs. Helv Chim Acta 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/hlca.201100243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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9
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Zemmouri R, Kajjout M, Castanet Y, Eddarir S, Rolando C. Palladium-catalyzed stereoconvergent formylation of (E/Z)-β-bromo-β-fluorostyrenes: straightforward access to (Z)-α-fluorocinnamic aldehydes and (Z)-β-fluorocinnamic alcohols. J Org Chem 2011; 76:7691-8. [PMID: 21812490 DOI: 10.1021/jo200798h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We report here the stereoconvergent formylation of (E/Z)-β-bromo-β-fluorostyrene mixtures with carbon monoxide and sodium formate catalyzed by palladium. Optimization of reaction conditions leads to the corresponding pure (Z)-α-fluorocinnamaldehydes in good yields. The reaction was extended to styrenes bearing electro-attracting or electro-donating groups. The obtained α-fluoroaldehydes were smoothly reduced to the corresponding (Z)-β-fluorocinnamic alcohol by NaBH(4). The reaction could be performed on functionalized substrates as demonstrated by the access to the glucoside of β-fluoroconiferyl alcohol, (Z)-β-fluoroconiferin, a strong inhibitor of lignin polymerization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajae Zemmouri
- USR CNRS 3290, Miniaturisation pour la Synthèse, l'Analyse et la Protéomique, Université de Lille 1, Sciences et Technologies, 59655 Villeneuve d’Ascq, France
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Abstract
Peptide-bond isosteres can enable a deep interrogation of the structure and function of a peptide or protein by amplifying or attenuating particular chemical properties. In this Minireview, the electronic, structural, and conformational attributes of four such isosteres-thioamides, esters, alkenes, and fluoroalkenes-are examined in detail. In particular, the ability of these isosteres to partake in noncovalent interactions is compared with that of the peptide bond. The consequential perturbations provide a useful tool for chemical biologists to reveal new structure-function relationships, and to endow peptides and proteins with desirable attributes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Choudhary
- Graduate Program in Biophysics, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1525 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706-1534 (USA)
| | - Ronald T. Raines
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 433 Babcock Drive, Madison, WI 53706-1544 (USA), Fax: (+1) 608-890-2583
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1101 University Avenue, Madison, WI 53706-1322 (USA)
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Ye Z, Gao T, Zhao G. Enantioselective total synthesis of the proposed structure of macrolide iriomoteolide-1b. Tetrahedron 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2011.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- Hikaru Yanai
- School of Pharmacy, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, 1432‐1 Horinouchi, Hachioji, Tokyo 192‐0392, Japan, Fax: +81‐42‐676‐3257
| | - Takeo Taguchi
- School of Pharmacy, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, 1432‐1 Horinouchi, Hachioji, Tokyo 192‐0392, Japan, Fax: +81‐42‐676‐3257
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Watanabe D, Koura M, Saito A, Yanai H, Nakamura Y, Okada M, Sato A, Taguchi T. Copper mediated defluorinative allylic alkylation of difluorohomoallyl alcohol derivatives directed to an efficient synthetic method for (Z)-fluoroalkene dipeptide isosteres. J Fluor Chem 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfluchem.2011.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Kitamatsu M, Sisido M. Quantification of the orientations of pyrrolidine-based oxypeptide nucleic acid–DNA hybrid duplexes. MEDCHEMCOMM 2011. [DOI: 10.1039/c0md00223b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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16
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Calata C, Pfund E, Lequeux T. Toward the Synthesis of Benzothiazolyl Fluoroaminosulfones. J Org Chem 2009; 74:9399-405. [DOI: 10.1021/jo901540c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Charlène Calata
- Laboratoire de Chimie Moléculaire et Thioorganique, UMR CNRS 6507 & FR3038, ENSICAEN Université de Caen Basse-Normandie, 6 Bd du Maréchal Juin 14050 Caen Cedex, France
| | - Emmanuel Pfund
- Laboratoire de Chimie Moléculaire et Thioorganique, UMR CNRS 6507 & FR3038, ENSICAEN Université de Caen Basse-Normandie, 6 Bd du Maréchal Juin 14050 Caen Cedex, France
| | - Thierry Lequeux
- Laboratoire de Chimie Moléculaire et Thioorganique, UMR CNRS 6507 & FR3038, ENSICAEN Université de Caen Basse-Normandie, 6 Bd du Maréchal Juin 14050 Caen Cedex, France
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Swamy KCK, Kumar NNB, Balaraman E, Kumar KVPP. Mitsunobu and Related Reactions: Advances and Applications. Chem Rev 2009; 109:2551-651. [PMID: 19382806 DOI: 10.1021/cr800278z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 852] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K. C. Kumara Swamy
- School of Chemistry, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad − 500046, A. P., India
| | - N. N. Bhuvan Kumar
- School of Chemistry, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad − 500046, A. P., India
| | - E. Balaraman
- School of Chemistry, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad − 500046, A. P., India
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Pensato S, Saviano M, Romanelli A. New peptide nucleic acid analogues: synthesis and applications. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2007; 7:1219-32. [PMID: 17696820 DOI: 10.1517/14712598.7.8.1219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Peptide nucleic acids are oligonucleotide mimics characterised by high chemical and enzymatic stability, high specificity and affinity toward complementary DNA/RNA. The lack of charge and polar groups in the backbone decrease their solubility in aqueous environment and their ability to cross cell membranes, reducing their performance in in vivo applications. To improve solubility, increase affinity and specificity of binding and to control recognition between nucleic acids, several analogues bearing modifications on the nucleobase, nucleobase-backbone linker and on the backbone were synthesised. This paper describes the synthesis and applications of Peptide nucleic acid analogues and discusses the potential of analogues for which no application is reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soccorsa Pensato
- Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Dipartimento delle Scienze Biologiche, Facoltà di Scienze Biotecnologiche, Napoli, Italy
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Pfund E, Lebargy C, Rouden J, Lequeux T. Modified Julia fluoroolefination: selective preparation of fluoroalkenoates. J Org Chem 2007; 72:7871-7. [PMID: 17880136 DOI: 10.1021/jo070994c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The modified Julia olefination reaction has been applied to develop a stereoselective synthesis of fluoroalkenoate derivatives from a fluorobenzothiazolyl sulfone and aldehydes or a ketone. The olefination reaction can be achieved by using a variety of bases. DBU and DBU in the presence of MgBr2 were found to be the most efficient systems to prepare either (Z)- or (E)-alkenoates in moderate to excellent stereoselectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Pfund
- Laboratoire de Chimie Moléculaire et Thio-organique, ENSICAEN, Université de Caen Basse-Normandie, CNRS, 6 boulevard du Maréchal Juin, 14050 Caen, France
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Couve-Bonnaire S, Cahard D, Pannecoucke X. Chiral dipeptide mimics possessing a fluoroolefin moiety: a relevant tool for conformational and medicinal studies. Org Biomol Chem 2007; 5:1151-7. [PMID: 17406709 DOI: 10.1039/b701559c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The replacement of the amide bond in a peptide backbone is a promising strategy in peptidomimetic drug research. Over the various amide bond surrogates, the fluoroolefin moiety has been successfully developed as an effective mimic. Today, fluorine-containing compounds account for a large proportion of new active molecules in life sciences. The synthesis of fluoroolefin peptide mimics is not a trivial task and innovative approaches often need to be addressed, in particular for the stereocontrol of the double bond configuration and the chiral centres adjacent to the fluoroalkene. These fluorinated peptidomimetics have been synthesised and evaluated as metabolically stable and/or conformationally constrained analogs of enzyme inhibitors, and as tools for probing the function, structure, and binding process of receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Couve-Bonnaire
- UMR CNRS 6014, ECOFH, IRCOF, INSA de Rouen, 1 rue Tesniere, F-76131, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France
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Govindaraju T, Madhuri V, Kumar VA, Ganesh KN. Cyclohexanyl peptide nucleic acids (chPNAs) for preferential RNA binding: effective tuning of dihedral angle beta in PNAs for DNA/RNA discrimination. J Org Chem 2006; 71:14-21. [PMID: 16388612 DOI: 10.1021/jo051227l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
[structures: see text] A serious drawback of peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) from an application perspective that has not been adequately dealt with is nondiscrimination of identical DNA and RNA sequences. An analysis of the available X-ray and NMR solution structures of PNA complexes with DNA and RNA suggested that it might be possible to rationally impart DNA/RNA duplex binding selectivity by tuning the dihedral angle beta of the flexible ethylenediamine part of the PNA backbone (II) via suitable chemical modifications. Cyclohexanyl PNAs (chPNAs) with beta approximately = 65 degrees were designed on the basis of this rationale. The chPNAs introduced remarkable differences in duplex stabilities among their DNA and RNA complexes, with melting temperatures (deltaTm(RNA-DNA) = +16-50 degrees C) depending on the number of modifications and the stereochemistry. This is a highly significant, exceptional binding selectivity of a mix sequence of PNA to RNA over the same DNA sequence as that seen to date. In contrast, cyclopentanyl PNAs (cpPNAs) with beta approximately = 25 degrees hybridize to DNA/RNA strongly without discrimination because of the ring puckering of the cyclopentane ring. The high affinity of chPNAs to bind to RNA without losing base specificity will have immediate implications in designing improved PNAs for therapeutic and diagnostic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Govindaraju
- Division of Organic Chemistry (Synthesis), National Chemical Laboratory, Pune 411008, India
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Dutheuil G, Paturel C, Lei X, Couve-Bonnaire S, Pannecoucke X. First Stereospecific Synthesis of (E)- or (Z)-α-Fluoroenones via a Kinetically Controlled Negishi Coupling Reaction. J Org Chem 2006; 71:4316-9. [PMID: 16709079 DOI: 10.1021/jo0604787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A highly stereospecific synthesis of (E)- or (Z)-alpha-fluoro-alpha,beta-unsaturated ketones 4, via a kinetically controlled Negishi palladium-catalyzed coupling reaction, was developed, providing an easy and general access to valuable fluorinated intermediates (pharmaceutical, peptide mimic, and so on). The synthesis involved a reaction between E/Z gem-bromofluoroolefins 2 and alkoxyvinylzinc species 6 under controlled reaction temperature. At 10 degrees C, (Z)-4 (70 to 99% yields) was obtained along with unreacted (Z)-2 (66 to 99% yields). At THF reflux, the recovered olefin was transformed into (E)-4 (up to 98% yield).
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Dutheuil
- IRCOF-ECOFH, UMR CNRS 6014, INSA de ROUEN, rue Tesnière, 76131 Mont-Saint-Aignan, France
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Nakamura Y, Okada M, Koura M, Tojo M, Saito A, Sato A, Taguchi T. An efficient synthetic method for Z-fluoroalkene dipeptide isosteres: Application to the synthesis of the dipeptide isostere of Sta-Ala. J Fluor Chem 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfluchem.2005.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Lundin KE, Good L, Strömberg R, Gräslund A, Smith CIE. Biological activity and biotechnological aspects of peptide nucleic acid. ADVANCES IN GENETICS 2006; 56:1-51. [PMID: 16735154 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2660(06)56001-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
During the latest decades a number of different nucleic acid analogs containing natural nucleobases on a modified backbone have been synthesized. An example of this is peptide nucleic acid (PNA), a DNA mimic with a noncyclic peptide-like backbone, which was first synthesized in 1991. Owing to its flexible and neutral backbone PNA displays very good hybridization properties also at low-ion concentrations and has subsequently attracted large interest both in biotechnology and biomedicine. Numerous modifications have been made, which could be of value for particular settings. However, the original PNA does so far perform well in many diverse applications. The high biostability makes it interesting for in vivo use, although the very limited diffusion over lipid membranes requires further modifications in order to make it suitable for treatment in eukaryotic cells. The possibility to use this nucleic acid analog for gene regulation and gene editing is discussed. Peptide nucleic acid is now also used for specific genetic detection in a number of diagnostic techniques, as well as for site-specific labeling and hybridization of functional molecules to both DNA and RNA, areas that are also discussed in this chapter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin E Lundin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Research Center Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge 141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
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