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Olkowski C, Fernandes B, Griffiths GL, Lin F, Choyke PL. Preclinical Imaging of Prostate Cancer. Semin Nucl Med 2023; 53:644-662. [PMID: 36882335 PMCID: PMC10440231 DOI: 10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2023.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
Abstract
Prostate cancer remains a major cause of mortality and morbidity, affecting millions of men, with a large percentage expected to develop the disease as they reach advanced ages. Treatment and management advances have been dramatic over the past 50 years or so, and one aspect of these improvements is reflected in the multiple advances in diagnostic imaging techniques. Much attention has been focused on molecular imaging techniques that offer high sensitivity and specificity and can now more accurately assess disease status and detect recurrence earlier. During development of molecular imaging probes, single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET) must be evaluated in preclinical models of the disease. If such agents are to be translated to the clinic, where patients undergoing these imaging modalities are injected with a molecular imaging probe, these agents must first be approved by the FDA and other regulatory agencies prior to their adoption in clinical practice. Scientists have worked assiduously to develop preclinical models of prostate cancer that are relevant to the human disease to enable testing of these probes and related targeted drugs. Challenges in developing reproducible and robust models of human disease in animals are beset with practical issues such as the lack of natural occurrence of prostate cancer in mature male animals, the difficulty of initiating disease in immune-competent animals and the sheer size differences between humans and conveniently smaller animals such as rodents. Thus, compromises in what is ideal and what can be achieved have had to be made. The workhorse of preclinical animal models has been, and remains, the investigation of human xenograft tumor models in athymic immunocompromised mice. Later models have used other immunocompromised models as they have been found and developed, including the use of directly derived patient tumor tissues, completely immunocompromised mice, orthotopic methods for inducing prostate cancer within the mouse prostate itself and metastatic models of advanced disease. These models have been developed in close parallel with advances in imaging agent chemistries, radionuclide developments, computer electronics advances, radiometric dosimetry, biotechnologies, organoid technologies, advances in in vitro diagnostics, and overall deeper understandings of disease initiation, development, immunology, and genetics. The combination of molecular models of prostatic disease with radiometric-based studies in small animals will always remain spatially limited due to the inherent resolution sensitivity limits of PET and SPECT decay processes, fundamentally set at around a 0.5 cm resolution limit. Nevertheless, it is central to researcher's efforts and to successful clinical translation that the best animal models are adopted, accepted, and scientifically verified as part of this truly interdisciplinary approach to addressing this important disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colleen Olkowski
- Molecular Imaging Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda MD
| | - Bruna Fernandes
- Molecular Imaging Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda MD
| | - Gary L Griffiths
- Clinical Research Directorate, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD
| | - Frank Lin
- Molecular Imaging Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda MD
| | - Peter L Choyke
- Molecular Imaging Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda MD.
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Katzenellenbogen JA. The quest for improving the management of breast cancer by functional imaging: The discovery and development of 16α-[ 18F]fluoroestradiol (FES), a PET radiotracer for the estrogen receptor, a historical review. Nucl Med Biol 2021; 92:24-37. [PMID: 32229068 PMCID: PMC7442693 DOI: 10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2020.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION 16α-[18F]Fluoroestradiol (FES), a PET radiotracer for the estrogen receptor (ER) in breast cancer, was the first receptor-targeted PET radiotracer for oncology and is continuing to prove its value in clinical research, antiestrogen development, and breast cancer care. The story of its conception, design, evaluation and use in clinical studies parallels the evolution of the whole field of receptor-targeted radiotracers, one greatly influenced by the research and intellectual contributions of William C. Eckelman. METHODS AND RESULTS The development of methods for efficient production of fluorine-18, for conversion of [18F]fluoride ion into chemically reactive form, and for its rapid and efficient incorporation into suitable estrogen precursor molecules at high molar activity, were all methodological underpinnings required for the preparation of FES. FES binds to ER with very high affinity, and its in vivo uptake by ER-dependent target tissues in animal models was efficient and selective, findings that preceded its use for PET imaging in patients with breast cancer. ADVANCES IN KNOWLEDGE AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PATIENT CARE Comparisons between ER levels measured by FES-PET imaging of breast tumors with tissue-specimen ER quantification by IHC and other methods show that imaging provided improved prediction of benefit from endocrine therapies. Serial imaging of ER by FES-PET, before and after dosing patients with antiestrogens, is used to determine the efficacious dose for established antiestrogens and to facilitate clinical development of new ER antagonists. Beyond FES imaging, PET-based hormone challenge tests, which evaluate the functional status of ER by monitoring rapid changes in tumor metabolic or transcriptional activity after a brief estrogen challenge, provide highly sensitive and selective predictions of whether or not there will be a favorable response to endocrine therapies. There is sufficient interest in the clinical applications of FES that FDA approval is being sought for its wider use in breast cancer. CONCLUSIONS FES was the first PET probe for a receptor in cancer, and its development and clinical applications in breast cancer parallel the conceptual evolution of the whole field of receptor-binding radiotracers.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Katzenellenbogen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, United States of America.
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[Neuroendocrine prostate cancer: Natural history, molecular features, therapeutic management and future directions]. Bull Cancer 2017; 104:789-799. [PMID: 28673439 DOI: 10.1016/j.bulcan.2017.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2017] [Revised: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Neuroendocrine prostate cancer is a rare malignancy with a an adverse prognostic. Histologically, It can be pure (small cells or large cells neuroendocrine carcinoma) or mixed with a adenocarcinoma component. Rarely diagnosed de novo, neuroendocrine prostate cancer is generally associated with advanced stage disease resistant to castration. As such, this histological subtype could represent an aggressive evolution of prostatic adenocarcinoma, through the epithelio-neuroendocrine transdifferentiation mechanism (phenomenon of lineage plasticity). Nonetheless, neuroendocrine prostate cancer is a heterogeneous malignancy with multiple histopathological variants showing distinct clinical features. The broad variety of molecular analyses could help to understand the ontogeny of this histological subtype and its signaling pathways. This may also allow identifying diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers as well as potential molecular targets. However, treatment options are currently limited and consist only in platinium-based chemotherapy for advanced stage disease.
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Synthesis and basic evaluation of 7α-(3-[ 18F]fluoropropyl)-testosterone and 7α-(3-[ 18F]fluoropropyl)-dihydrotestosterone. Ann Nucl Med 2016; 31:53-62. [PMID: 27680022 DOI: 10.1007/s12149-016-1130-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE 7α-Substituted androgen derivatives may have the potential to visualize androgen receptors with positron emission tomography. In the present study, we synthesized fluoropropyl derivatives of 7α-(3-[18F]fluoropropyl)-testosterone ([18F]7) and 7α-(3-[18F]fluoropropyl)-dihydrotestosterone ([18F]15), and characterized their in vitro binding, in vivo biodistribution, and performed blocking studies in mature androgen deprived male rats. METHODS We synthesized [18F]7 and [18F]15. In vitro binding to recombinant rat AR ligand binding domain protein was determined using a competitive radiometric ligand-binding assay with the high-affinity synthetic androgen [17α-methyl-3H]-methyltrienolone ([3H]R1881). In vivo biodistribution was performed in mature male rats treated with diethylstilbestrol (chemical castration). A blocking study was performed by co-administration of dihydrotestosterone (36 µg/animal). RESULTS 7α-(3-Fluoropropyl)-testosterone (7) and 7α-(3-fluoropropyl)-dihydrotestosterone (15) showed competitive binding to recombinant rat AR ligand binding domain protein. The IC50 value of 15 (13.0 ± 3.3 nM) was higher than 7 (47.8 ± 10.0 nM). In contrast to the AR binding affinity, the ventral prostate uptake of [18F]7 and [18F]15 at 2 h post-injection was similar (0.07 % injected dose/g of tissue). A blocking study indicated that specific binding of [18F]15 is observed in the ventral prostate. [18F]7 and [18F]15 showed moderate levels of bone uptake, which indicates moderate metabolic de-fluorination in rodents. CONCLUSION [18F]15 is better than [18F]7 in terms of radiochemical yield, in vitro binding affinity, prostate specific binding and stability against in vivo metabolic de-fluorination. However, the net uptake level of [18F]15 in prostate might be insufficient for in vivo visualization. Although [18F]7 and [18F]15 improved in vivo stability against de-fluorination, other basic characterization data in rodents were not superior to the current standard tracer 16β-[18F]fluoro-5α-dihydrotestosterone. It is also revealed that the shorter side chain length of 7α-[18F]fluoromethyl-dihydrotestosterone is superior to the longer three carbon chain in [18F]15, in terms of net prostate uptake and in vivo metabolic stability.
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Bertolini R, Goepfert C, Andrieu T, Nichols S, Walter MA, Frey FJ, McCammon JA, Frey BM. 18F-RB390: innovative ligand for imaging the T877A androgen receptor mutant in prostate cancer via positron emission tomography (PET). Prostate 2015; 75:348-59. [PMID: 25358634 DOI: 10.1002/pros.22919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Detecting prostate cancer before spreading or predicting a favorable therapy are challenging issues for impacting patient's survival. Presently, 2-[(18) F]-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose ((18) F-FDG) and/or (18) F-fluorocholine ((18) F-FCH) are the generally used PET-tracers in oncology yet do not emphasize the T877A androgen receptor (AR) mutation being exclusively present in cancerous tissue and escaping androgen deprivation treatment. METHODS We designed and synthesized fluorinated 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) derivatives to target T877A-AR. We performed binding assays to select suitable candidates using COS-7 cells transfected with wild-type or T877A AR (WT-AR, T877A-AR) expressing plasmids and investigated cellular uptake of candidate (18) F-RB390. Stability, biodistribution analyses and PET-Imaging were assessed by injecting (18) F-RB390 (10MBq), with and without co-injection of an excess of unlabeled DHT in C4-2 and PC-3 tumor bearing male SCID mice (n = 12). RESULTS RB390 presented a higher relative binding affinity (RBA) (28.1%, IC50 = 32 nM) for T877A-AR than for WT-AR (1.7%, IC50 = 357 nM) related to DHT (RBA = 100%). A small fraction of (18) F-RB390 was metabolized when incubated with murine liver homogenate or human blood for 3 hr. The metabolite of RB390, 3-hydroxysteroid RB448, presented similar binding characteristics as RB390. (18) F-RB390 but not (18) F-FDG or (18) F-FCH accumulated 2.5× more in COS-7 cells transfected with pSG5AR-T877A than with control plasmid. Accumulation was reduced with an excess of DHT. PET/CT imaging and biodistribution studies revealed a significantly higher uptake of (18) F-RB390 in T877A mutation positive xenografts compared to PC-3 control tumors. This effect was blunted with DHT. CONCLUSION Given the differential binding capacity and the favorable radioactivity pattern, (18) F-RB390 represents the portrayal of the first imaging ligand with predictive potential for mutant T877A-AR in prostate cancer for guiding therapy. Prostate 75:348-359, 2015. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reto Bertolini
- Department of Nephrology & Hypertension and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Berne, Berne, Switzerland
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Braun MG, Katcher MH, Doyle AG. Carbofluorination via a palladium-catalyzed cascade reaction. Chem Sci 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c2sc22198e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Luo SP, Guo LD, Gao LH, Li S, Huang PQ. Toward the Total Synthesis of Haliclonin A: Construction of a Tricyclic Substructure. Chemistry 2012; 19:87-91. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201203203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2012] [Revised: 11/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE Recent advances in the fundamental understanding of the complex biology of prostate cancer have provided an increasing number of potential targets for imaging and treatment. The imaging evaluation of prostate cancer needs to be tailored to the various phases of this remarkably heterogeneous disease. CONCLUSION In this article, I review the current state of affairs on a range of PET radiotracers for potential use in the imaging evaluation of men with prostate cancer.
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Kortylewicz ZP, Nearman J, Baranowska-Kortylewicz J. Radiolabeled 5-iodo-3'-O-(17beta-succinyl-5alpha-androstan-3-one)-2'-deoxyuridine and its 5'-monophosphate for imaging and therapy of androgen receptor-positive cancers: synthesis and biological evaluation. J Med Chem 2010; 52:5124-43. [PMID: 19653647 DOI: 10.1021/jm9005803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
High levels of androgen receptor (AR) are often indicative of recurrent, advanced, or metastatic cancers. These conditions are also characterized by a high proliferative fraction. 5-Radioiodo-3'-O-(17beta-succinyl-5alpha-androstan-3-one)-2'-deoxyuridine 8 and 5-radioiodo-3'-O-(17beta-succinyl-5alpha-androstan-3-one)-2'-deoxyuridin-5'-yl monophosphate 13 target AR. They are also degraded intracellularly to 5-radioiodo-2'-deoxyuridine 1 and its monophosphate 20, respectively, which can participate in the DNA synthesis. Both drugs were prepared at the no-carrier-added level. Precursors and methods are readily adaptable to radiolabeling with various radiohalides suitable for SPECT and PET imaging, as well as endoradiotherapy. In vitro and in vivo studies confirm the AR-dependent interactions. Both drugs bind to sex hormone binding globulin. This binding significantly improves their stability in serum. Biodistribution and imaging studies show preferential uptake and retention of 8 and 13 in ip xenografts of human ovarian adenocarcinoma cells NIH:OVCAR-3, which overexpress AR. When these drugs are administered at therapeutic dose levels, a significant tumor growth arrest is observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zbigniew P Kortylewicz
- Department of Radiation Oncology, J. Bruce Henriksen Cancer Research Laboratories, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986850 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198-6850, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Hanson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Sussex, Brighton, Sussex, BN1 9QJ, UK
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Jadvar
- From the USC Molecular Imaging Center, Department of Radiology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
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Prakash GKS, Chacko S, Vaghoo H, Shao N, Gurung L, Mathew T, Olah GA. Efficient Nucleophilic Fluoromethylation and Subsequent Transformation of Alkyl and Benzyl Halides Using Fluorobis(phenylsulfonyl)methane. Org Lett 2009; 11:1127-30. [DOI: 10.1021/ol8029627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G. K. Surya Prakash
- Loker Hydrocarbon Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089-1661
| | - Sujith Chacko
- Loker Hydrocarbon Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089-1661
| | - Habiba Vaghoo
- Loker Hydrocarbon Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089-1661
| | - Nan Shao
- Loker Hydrocarbon Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089-1661
| | - Laxman Gurung
- Loker Hydrocarbon Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089-1661
| | - Thomas Mathew
- Loker Hydrocarbon Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089-1661
| | - George A. Olah
- Loker Hydrocarbon Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089-1661
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Zhang S, Zhang Y, Ji Y, Li H, Wang W. Catalytic enantioselective conjugate addition of fluorobis(phenylsulfonyl)methane to enals: synthesis of chiral monofluoromethyl compounds. Chem Commun (Camb) 2009:4886-8. [DOI: 10.1039/b907399j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Mankoff DA, Link JM, Linden HM, Sundararajan L, Krohn KA. Tumor receptor imaging. J Nucl Med 2008; 49 Suppl 2:149S-63S. [PMID: 18523071 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.107.045963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor receptors play an important role in carcinogenesis and tumor growth and have been some of the earliest targets for tumor-specific therapy, for example, the estrogen receptor in breast cancer. Knowledge of receptor expression is key for therapy directed at tumor receptors and traditionally has been obtained by assay of biopsy material. Tumor receptor imaging offers complementary information that includes evaluation of the entire tumor burden and characterization of the heterogeneity of tumor receptor expression. The nature of the ligand-receptor interaction poses a challenge for imaging--notably, the requirement for a low molecular concentration of the imaging probe to avoid saturating the receptor and increasing the background because of nonspecific uptake. For this reason, much of the work to date in tumor receptor imaging has been done with radionuclide probes. In this overview of tumor receptor imaging, aspects of receptor biochemistry and biology that underlie tumor receptor imaging are reviewed, with the estrogen-estrogen receptor system in breast cancer as an illustrative example. Examples of progress in radionuclide receptor imaging for 3 receptor systems--steroid receptors, somatostatin receptors, and growth factor receptors-are highlighted, and recent investigations of receptor imaging with other molecular imaging modalities are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Mankoff
- Division of Nuclear Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA.
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Abstract
Imaging is one of the fastest growing fields of study. New technologies and multimodal approaches are increasing the application of imaging to determine molecular targets and functional processes in vivo. The identification of a specific target, transporter, or biological process using imaging has introduced major breakthroughs to the field of endocrinology primarily utilizing computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasonography, positron emission tomography, single-photon emission computed tomography, and optical imaging. This review provides a general background to the specific developments in imaging that pertains to in vivo function and target identification in endocrine-based diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna E Burdette
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, USA.
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Parent EE, Dence CS, Sharp TL, Welch MJ, Katzenellenbogen JA. 7α-18F-Fluoromethyl-Dihydrotestosterone and 7α-18F-Fluoromethyl-Nortestosterone: Ligands to Determine the Role of Sex Hormone–Binding Globulin for Steroidal Radiopharmaceuticals. J Nucl Med 2008; 49:987-94. [DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.107.048926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
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Prakash GKS, Ledneczki I, Chacko S, Olah GA. Direct electrophilic monofluoromethylation. Org Lett 2008; 10:557-60. [PMID: 18198880 DOI: 10.1021/ol702500u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Monofluoromethyl derivatives of various nucleophiles have been synthesized using a new electrophilic monofluoromethylating reagent developed. The S-(monofluoromethyl)diarylsulfonium tetrafluoroborate has been shown to be effective for the introduction of an electrophilic monofluoromethyl group into C, S, O, N, and P nucleophiles. This methodology has been expanded for the synthesis of various biologically important compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- G K Surya Prakash
- Loker Hydrocarbon Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089-1661, USA.
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