Empirical Parameters for Solvent Acidity, Basicity, Dipolarity, and Polarizability of the Ionic Liquids [BMIM][BF4] and [BMIM][PF6]

Unique structural effect on the fluorosolvatochromism and dual fluorescence emission of D-π-A+ cationic chromophores with furyl bridge. An approach to white light emitters

Photophysical behavior of two D - π - A+ cationic compounds with the same furyl bridge and nicotinamidine group as an electron acceptor moiety and two electron donating groups, namely methoxy (I) and N,N-dimethylamino (II) groups was examined using steady-state and time-resolved techniques in variety of solvents. Time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) calculations were performed in some representative solvents and compared with the experimental results. Steady state and time-resolved studies in different solvents reveal that fluorescence emission of (I) is ascribed to an emission from an excited state (ICT) with higher dipole moment than the ground state while the emission of (II) is a dual emission from a state with high charge transfer nature (ICT) in addition to the locally excited state (LE). The fluorescence emission spectra of (II) were found to depend on the excitation wavelength and an increase in the excitation wavelength led to the formation of a longer wavelength emission band with lower quantum yield. It has also been found that the fluorescence excitation spectra were dependent on the emission wavelength. The effect of solvent on the nature of dual emission was examined. Correlation of the photophysical properties of the excited states of (I) and (II) with the solvent polarity, ε, reveals the charge transfer nature of (I) and the long wavelength emission band of (II), while their correlation with the solvent polarity parameter (ETN) shows two different trends when the solvents are divided to aprotic and protic solvents. For precise investigation of the impact of each solvent parameter on each photophysical property, Catalán's and Laurence's four parametric linear solvation energy relationships were studied. We have found that the non-specific interactions of the solvent are primarily responsible for controlling the photophysical properties, as demonstrated by Catalán's and Laurence's treatments. DFT and TDDFT calculations were used to anticipate the dipole moments in the ground and excited states and geometry of both states.

The Shift in the Behavior of Methylene Blue Toward the Sensitivity of Medium: Solvatochromism, Solvent Parameters, Regression Analysis and Investigation of Cosolvent on the Acidity Constants

The influence solvents from different polarity and hydrogen bonding ability on electronic absorption spectrum of Methylene blue was investigated. The visible absorption spectra were recorded in eleven neat solvents in the range 400-700 nm. Methylene blue has two absorption maxima, the first band assigned to n-π* from amino groups and the second band assigned to weakly forbidden n-π* transition with charge transfer. The charge transfer band of Methylene blue showed red shift with increasing the relative permittivity of neat solvents. The red shift in wavelength(λmax) for the charge transfer band of Methylene blue was observed when proceeding from dioxane (λmax = 650 nm) into methanol (λmax = 655 nm) into cyclohexanone (λmax = 660 nm) into dimethylsulfoxide (λmax = 665 nm) as well as water (λmax = 665 nm), this shift not agree with the polarity of solvents but due to combination of several parameters. The absorption of charge transfer band in methanol and ethanol as hydrogen bonding donating solvents (HBD) showed the highest intensity than the absorption band in dimethylsulfoxide and dimethylformamide as hydrogen bonding accepting solvents (HBA) due to non-electrostatic interaction between the amino groups and solvents. The charge transfer band in neat solvents were correlated with several parameters using linear solvation energy relationships. The results showed that electrostatic interactions of the solvents play an important role in the shift of absorption maxima of Methylene blue in neat solvents. The acidity constants (pKa) of Methylene blue were estimated by using absorbance measurements in different media. The acidity constants (pKa) values of Methylene blue were affected by cosolvent, which the pKa values increasing in the order propanol < methanol < dioxane, this order not agreement with increasing the relative permittivity of the medium.

Morphological Features of SiO2 Nanofillers Address Poor Stability Issue in Gel Polymer Electrolyte-Based Electrochromic Devices

Nanofillers' applicability in gel polymer electrolyte (GPE)-based devices skyrocketed in the last decade as soon as their remarkable benefits were realized. However, their applicability in GPE-based electrochromic devices (ECDs) has hardly seen any development due to challenges such as optical inhomogeneity brought by incompetent nanofiller sizes, transmittance drop due to higher filler loading (usually required), and poor methodologies of electrolyte fabrication. To address such issues, herein, we demonstrate a reinforced polymer electrolyte tailored through poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP),1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (BMIMBF₄), and four types of mesoporous SiO₂ nanofillers, porous (distinct morphologies) and nonporous, two each. The synthesized electrochromic species 1,1'-bis(4-fluorobenzyl)-4,4'-bipyridine-1,1'-diium tetrafluoroborate (BzV, 0.05 M), counter redox species ferrocene (Fc, 0.05 M), and supporting electrolyte (TBABF₄, 0.5 M) were first dissolved in propylene carbonate (PC) and then immobilized in an electrospun PVDF-HFP/BMIMBF₄/SiO₂ host. We distinctly observed that spherical (SPHS) and hexagonal pore (MCMS) morphologies of fillers endowed higher transmittance change (ΔT) and coloration efficiency (CE) in utilized ECDs; particularly for the MCMS-incorporated ECD (GPE-MCMS/BzV-Fc ECD), ΔT reached ∼62.5% and CE soared to 276.3 cm²/C at 603 nm. The remarkable benefit of filler's hexagonal morphology was also seen in the GPE-MCMS/BzV-Fc ECD, which not only marked an astounding ionic conductivity (σ) of ∼13.5 × 10^-3 S cm^-1 at 25 °C, thus imitating the solution-type ECD's behavior, but also retained ∼77% of initial ΔT after 5000 switching cycles. The enhancement in ECD's performance resulted from merits brought by filler geometries such as the proliferation of Lewis acid-base interaction sites due to the high surface-to-volume ratio, the creation of percolating tunnels, and the emergence of capillary forces triggering facile ion transportation in the electrolyte matrix.

Photophysical properties of push-pull monocationic D-π-A+ thiophene based derivatives: Fluorosolvatochromism and pH studies

Photophysical properties of two thiophene salts of the form D-π-A⁺ are studied in several solvents and at various pH values of the aqueous solution. The studied compounds embrace methoxy group as electron donating moiety at one end and cationic amidine group with and without fluorine atom at the ortho position of the amidine group as the electron withdrawing group at the other end of the molecules and separated by thiophene ring. The two thiophene derivatives are 4-(5-(4-methoxyphenyl)thiophen-2-yl)benzamidine hydrochloride salt (MOTB) and 2-fluoro-4-(5-(4-methoxyphenyl) thiophen-2-yl)benzamidine hydrochloride salt (FMOTB). The observed changes in the fluorescence emission spectra with the nature of the solvent were found to be much more pronounced than the corresponding absorption spectra which signify an emission from the intramolecular charge transfer state. The higher bathochromic shift in the fluorescence emission spectra than the absorption spectra indicates that the excited state dipole moment is larger than that of the ground state. It has also been observed that the presence of the fluorine atom in the electron withdrawing part does not show any changes in the absorption spectra while a clear bathochromic shift is observed in the fluorescence emission spectra indicating an enhanced strength of the electron withdrawing ability in case of FMOTB. Effect of pH was also studied and pK_a values were evaluated. The observed photophysical properties were correlated to the normalized solvent polarity parameter (E_T^N) when solvents are classified to protic and aprotic solvents. This designates the importance of hydrogen bonding interactions. We have also applied a couple of linear solvation energy relationships for better understanding of the exact contribution of each solvent parameter on each photophysical property. We have found that both Catalán's and Laurence's treatments show that the photophysical properties are mainly controlled by the solvent's non-specific interactions. However, these models were not sufficient to interpret the observed data without the inclusion of the participation of the specific interactions.

The relationship between solvatochromic properties and in silico ADME parameters of new chloroethylnitrosourea derivatives with potential anticancer activity and their β-Cyclodextrin complexes

In view of the anticancer effect of nitrosoureas a set of four new N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-nitrosourea (CENU) derivatives was synthesized. An in silico absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and toxicity (ADME/Tox) prediction study revealed that the CENU derivatives satisfied all the required criteria for oral administration and introduced them as remarkable anticancer candidates in the central nervous system (CNS). A comparative solvatochromic study including the Kamlet-Taft, Catalán and Laurence models indicated that the solvatochromic behavior of the CENUs depended on both, unspecific and specific solvent-solute interactions. In detail, the solvatochromic effect of the solvent polarity on the absorption and emission maxima was significant for all CENUs, whereas the solvatochromic effect of the solvent's ability to donate or accept hydrogen bonds on the absorption and emission maxima was critically dependent on the electron density of the N'-aryl group. From the solvatochromic comparison method, excellent correlations (r ≥ 0.890) were obtained between the ADME parameters and the solvatochromic regression coefficients obtained by the Catalán model. As potential stabilizers, inclusion complexes of the investigated CENU derivatives with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) were also explored. The spectrofluorimetric host-guest experiments included double-reciprocal Benesi-Hildebrand plots as well as the molar ratio and continuous variation plots (Job's plots), which established a 1:1 β-CD to CENU binding stoichiometry and relatively high affinities of β-CD for CENU derivatives.

The Role of Hydrogen Bonding in Paracetamol-Solvent and Paracetamol-Hydrogel Matrix Interactions

The photophysical and photochemical properties of antipyretic drug - paracetamol (PAR) and its two analogs with different substituents (acetanilide (ACT) and N-ethylaniline (NEA)) in 14 solvents of different polarity were investigated by the use of steady-state spectroscopic technique and quantum-chemical calculations. As expected, the results show that the spectroscopic behavior of PAR, ACT, and NEA is highly dependent on the nature of the solute-solvent interactions (non-specific (dipole-dipole) and specific (hydrogen bonding)). To characterize these interactions, the multiparameter regression analysis proposed by Catalán was used. In order to obtain a deeper insight into the electronic and optical properties of the studied molecules, the difference of the dipole moments of a molecule in the ground and excited state were determined using the theory proposed by Lippert, Mataga, McRae, Bakhshiev, Bilot, and Kawski. Additionally, the influence of the solute polarizability on the determined dipole moments was discussed. The results of the solvatochromic studies were related to the observations of the release kinetics of PAR, ACT, and NEA from polyurethane hydrogels. The release kinetics was analyzed using the Korsmayer-Peppas and Hopfenberg models. Finally, the influence of the functional groups of the investigated compounds on the release time from the hydrogel matrix was analyzed.

Synthesis, and the optical and electrochemical properties of a series of push–pull dyes based on the 4-(9-ethyl-9H-carbazol-3-yl)-4-phenylbuta-1,3-dienyl donor

A series of twelve dyes based on the 4-(9-ethyl-9H-carbazol-3-yl)-4-phenylbuta-1,3-dienyl donor were prepared with electron acceptors varying in their structures but also in their electron-withdrawing ability.

Photophysical properties and fluorosolvatochromism of D–π–A thiophene based derivatives

Solvation-dependent photophysical properties of two push–pull thiophene-based compounds with donor–π–acceptor (D–π–A) structures were investigated using absorption, fluorescence emission and time resolved spectroscopy, and supported by different solvation models. Intramolecular charge transfer characteristics of the structurally similar 2-fluoro-4-(5-(4-methoxyphenyl)thiophen-2-yl)benzonitrile (MOT) and 4-(5-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)thiophen-2-yl)-2-fluorobenzonitrile (DMAT) were investigated. Significant enhancement of intramolecular charge transfer strength has been observed through molecular structure modification of the electron donating group from a methoxy to dimethylamine group. Ground state absorption spectra show a small red shift of about 10 nm and 18 nm while the fluorescence emission spectra show a large red shift of about 66 nm and 162 nm on changing from the nonpolar cyclohexane to the aprotic polar DMSO for MOT and DMAT, respectively. Dipole moment change from the ground state to the charge transfer excited state is calculated to be 6.6 D in MOT and 9.0 D in DMAT. The fluorescence quantum yield, fluorescence lifetime and the derived radiative and non-radiative rate constants were found to be better correlated to the emission energy rather than any of the solvent properties. Three multi-parametric relationships were used in the interpretation of the specific versus non-specific solute–solvent interactions, namely, Kamlet–Taft, Catalán and Laurence et al. models. The findings of these approaches are used to extract useful information about different aspects of solvent effects on the photophysical properties of the two studied compounds. Kamlet–Taft solvatochromic model indicates that non-specific interactions are dominant in controlling the photophysical properties. Catalán's solvent dipolarity/polarizability parameter is found to play a significant role in solvatochromic behaviour which is also designated by the Laurence model.

Solvation-dependent photophysical properties of two push–pull thiophene-based compounds with donor–π–acceptor (D–π–A) structures were investigated using absorption, fluorescence emission and time resolved spectroscopy, and supported by different solvation models.

Understanding the efficiency of ionic liquids–DMSO as solvents for carbohydrates: use of solvatochromic- and related physicochemical properties

The quantification of interactions of solvatochromic probes with ionic liquids/DMSO serves as an expedient approach for predicting the solvent efficiency in dissolving carbohydrates

Human cytotoxicity and octanol/water partition coefficients of fluorinated ionic liquids

The use of fluorinated ionic liquids (FILs) as novel materials in biological and pharmaceutical applications is an emerging research field. The knowledge of their cytotoxicity and that of 1-octanol/water partition coefficients are essential to assess their environmental risks, to estimate their toxicity and activity, or the hydrophilic/lipophilic balance, as well as to explore their properties as solvents in extraction processes or for successful drug design. The study of the cytotoxicity in four different human cell lines and the experimental measurement of the partition coefficient between 1-octanol and water (P_o/w), using the slow-stirring method, were carried out for several FILs. In both studies, the effect of the cation ([C₂C₁Im]⁺, [C₂C₁py]⁺, [C₄C₁pyr]⁺, [N_1112(OH)]⁺, or [N₄₄₄₄]⁺), the cationic alkyl side-chain length ([C_nC₁Im]⁺, with n = 2, 6, 8 or 12), and the anionic fluorinated chain length/anionic fluorinated domain size ([C₄F₉SO₃]¯, [C₈F₁₇SO₃]¯, or [N(C₄F₉SO₃)₂]¯) were analysed. The results reveal that both toxicity and partition properties are mainly influenced by the size of the cationic hydrogenated alkyl side-chain and that of the anionic fluorinated domain. The intrinsic tuneability of the FILs allows for their selection according to the lipophilic or hydrophilic character of the target biological system under consideration. The toxicity studies corroborate the biocompatible nature of some FILs tested in this work. Along, for all the FILs under study P_o/w < 1.00. Accordingly, a decadic logarithm of the bioconcentration factor in fish of 0.5 would be estimated, which is below the regulatory endpoint used by regulatory agencies.

Validation of pH Standards and Estimation of the Activity Coefficients of Hydrogen and Chloride Ions in an Ionic Liquid, Ethylammonium Nitrate

We selected and validated the pH values of three standard materials that function in the protic ionic liquid, ethylammonium nitrate (EAN). The pH values of 0.05 mol kg^-1 phthalate, oxalate, and phosphate buffers were 4.93 (0.04), 2.12 (0.04), and 7.13 (0.06), respectively (the values in the parentheses denote the standard deviation). Because the pH of EAN ranges from 0 to 10, with a neutral pH of 5, these materials are usable as acidic, basic, or neutral standards. The standard electrode potential of silver-silver chloride in EAN was 127.2 (1.7) mV. The activity coefficients of hydrogen and chloride ions remain equal to unity in EAN of a wide concentration range, which indicates that the effective ionic strength is independent of the solute ion concentration. In addition, the estimated value of the transfer activity coefficient of chloride ion suggests a weaker solvation in EAN compared with water in spite of a ubiquitous cation (C₂H₅NH₃⁺). These behaviors of ions in EAN can be explained by the unique solvation in the ionic liquid through direct ion-ion electrostatic interactions.

Synthesis, characterization and cellulose dissolution capabilities of ammonium-based room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs)

Green synthesis of room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs), are presented as friendly and challenging solvents for the effective dissolution of oil palm-lignocellulosic biomass. A series of Bronsted acidic-ionic liquids were prepared by the direct neutralization of diethyl dimethyl ammonium hydroxide with several (economical and environmental friendly) Bronsted acids as RTILs. The structural and physicochemical characterization was performed by applying various techniques as Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), zeta-nanosizer and dynamic light scattering (DLS) respectively, to state the effect of anion on the extended cellulose dissolution capabilities of the synthesized RTILs under mild conditions. As a polysaccharide solvent, diethyl dimethyl ammonium phosphate (A1P) showed the extreme capability to extract 65 % of cellulose from biomass without any pretreatment for 30 min. The present study could be a significant step toward the synthesis of efficient RTILs and generating upgraded cellulose for Hi-tech engineered composites and energy concerns.

A temperature compensated dielectric test cell for accurately measuring the complex permittivity of liquids

A measurement of the complex permittivity, ε_r, of a liquid can give valuable information about the molecular polarizability and dielectric losses. This can be obtained by means of an impedance measurement using a parallel plate test cell. However, highly accurate and precise measurements are challenging, in particular when measuring as a function of temperature. Thermal expansion affects the geometry of a test cell and thus the measured capacitance from which ε_r is calculated. In this paper, a broadband four-terminal dielectric test cell is presented that is insensitive to temperature fluctuations. This was achieved by means of a cell geometry exploiting the thermal expansion coefficient of different materials. Experimental measurements on the manufactured cell yielded a stable capacitance of 35.322 ± 0.001 pF across 20 °C-90 °C. The capacitance stayed within ±0.01 pF over multiple experimental cycles of cleaning and assembly. A finite element modeling showed a theoretical accuracy in measuring ε_r better than 99.995%. The measured ε_r values for a number of standard liquids showed an agreement of 99.7% compared to literature values.