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Tajima K, Akanuma SI, Ohishi Y, Yoshida Y, Bauer B, Kubo Y, Inouye M, Hosoya KI. Freshly isolated retinal capillaries to determine efflux transporter function at the inner BRB. J Control Release 2022; 343:434-442. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.01.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Revised: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Liu Y, Sun J, Huang Y, Chen Y, Li J, Liang L, Xu J, Wan Z, Zhang B, Li Z, Li S. Metformin-conjugated micellar system with intratumoral pH responsive de-shielding for co-delivery of doxorubicin and nucleic acid. Biochem Pharmacol 2021; 189:114453. [PMID: 33545119 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2021.114453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
A novel PMet-P(cdmPEG2K) polymeric micellar carrier was developed for tumor-targeted co-delivery of DOX and nucleic acids (NA), based on polymetformin and a structure designed to lose the PEG shell in response to the acidic extracellular tumor environment. NA/DOX co-loaded micelleplexes exhibited enhanced inhibition of cell proliferation compared to DOX-loaded micelles, and displayed a higher level of cytotoxicity at an acidic pH (6.8) which mimicks the tumor microenvironment. The PMet-P(cdmPEG2K) micelles achieved significantly improved transfection with either a reporter plasmid or Cy3-siRNA, and enhanced DOX intracellular uptake in 4T1.2 cells at pH 6.8. Importantly, PMet-P(cdmPEG2K) micelles showed excellent pEGFP (EGFP expression plasmid) transfection in an aggressive murine breast cancer (4T1.2) model. By using a plasmid encoding IL-12 (pIL-12), we investigated the combined effect of chemotherapy and gene therapy. PMet-P(cdmPEG2K) micelles co-loaded with DOX and pIL-12 were more effective at inhibiting tumor growth compared to micelles loaded with DOX or pIL-12 alone. In addition, this micellar system was effective in co-delivery of siRNA and DOX into tumor cells. Our results suggest that PMet-P(cdmPEG2K) has the potential for chemo and nucleic acid combined cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhua Liu
- Center for Pharmacogenetics, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, United States
| | - Jingjing Sun
- Center for Pharmacogenetics, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, United States
| | - Yixian Huang
- Center for Pharmacogenetics, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, United States
| | - Yichao Chen
- Center for Pharmacogenetics, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, United States
| | - Jiang Li
- Center for Pharmacogenetics, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, United States
| | - Lei Liang
- Center for Pharmacogenetics, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, United States
| | - Jieni Xu
- Center for Pharmacogenetics, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, United States
| | - Zhuoya Wan
- Center for Pharmacogenetics, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, United States
| | - Bei Zhang
- Center for Pharmacogenetics, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, United States
| | - Zuojun Li
- Center for Pharmacogenetics, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, United States
| | - Song Li
- Center for Pharmacogenetics, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, United States.
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Warne J, Pryce G, Hill JM, Shi X, Lennerås F, Puentes F, Kip M, Hilditch L, Walker P, Simone MI, Chan AWE, Towers GJ, Coker AR, Duchen MR, Szabadkai G, Baker D, Selwood DL. Selective Inhibition of the Mitochondrial Permeability Transition Pore Protects against Neurodegeneration in Experimental Multiple Sclerosis. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:4356-73. [PMID: 26679998 PMCID: PMC4813465 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.700385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2015] [Revised: 12/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The mitochondrial permeability transition pore is a recognized drug target for neurodegenerative conditions such as multiple sclerosis and for ischemia-reperfusion injury in the brain and heart. The peptidylprolyl isomerase, cyclophilin D (CypD, PPIF), is a positive regulator of the pore, and genetic down-regulation or knock-out improves outcomes in disease models. Current inhibitors of peptidylprolyl isomerases show no selectivity between the tightly conserved cyclophilin paralogs and exhibit significant off-target effects, immunosuppression, and toxicity. We therefore designed and synthesized a new mitochondrially targeted CypD inhibitor, JW47, using a quinolinium cation tethered to cyclosporine. X-ray analysis was used to validate the design concept, and biological evaluation revealed selective cellular inhibition of CypD and the permeability transition pore with reduced cellular toxicity compared with cyclosporine. In an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis disease model of neurodegeneration in multiple sclerosis, JW47 demonstrated significant protection of axons and improved motor assessments with minimal immunosuppression. These findings suggest that selective CypD inhibition may represent a viable therapeutic strategy for MS and identify quinolinium as a mitochondrial targeting group for in vivo use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Warne
- From the Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Gareth Pryce
- From the Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom, the Neuroimmunology Unit, Blizard Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, 4 Newark Street, London E1 2AT, United Kingdom
| | - Julia M Hill
- the Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Xiao Shi
- From the Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Felicia Lennerås
- the Neuroimmunology Unit, Blizard Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, 4 Newark Street, London E1 2AT, United Kingdom
| | - Fabiola Puentes
- the Neuroimmunology Unit, Blizard Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, 4 Newark Street, London E1 2AT, United Kingdom
| | - Maarten Kip
- From the Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Laura Hilditch
- the Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Molecular Biology, Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Walker
- Cyprotex Discovery Ltd., 100 Barbirolli Square, Manchester M2 3AB, United Kingdom, and
| | - Michela I Simone
- From the Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - A W Edith Chan
- From the Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Greg J Towers
- the Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Molecular Biology, Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Alun R Coker
- From the Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Michael R Duchen
- the Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Gyorgy Szabadkai
- the Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom, the Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Padua 35122, Italy
| | - David Baker
- the Neuroimmunology Unit, Blizard Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, 4 Newark Street, London E1 2AT, United Kingdom,
| | - David L Selwood
- From the Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom,
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Semi-synthesis of cyclosporins. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2015; 1850:2121-44. [PMID: 25707381 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2015.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Revised: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Since its isolation in 1970, and discovery of its potent inhibitory activity on T-cell proliferation, cyclosporin A (CsA) has been shown to play a significant role in diverse fields of biology. Furthermore, chemical modification of CsA has led to analogs with distinct biological activities associated with its protein receptor family, cyclophilins. SCOPE OF REVIEW This review systematically collates the synthetic chemistry performed at each of the eleven amino acids, and provides examples of the utility of such transformations. The various modifications of CsA are traced from early, modest chemistry performed at the unique Bmt residue, through the remarkable use of a polyanion enolate that can be stereoselectively manipulated, and onto application of more recently developed olefin metathesis chemistry to prepare new CsA derivatives with unexpected biological activity. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS The myriad biological activities of CsA and its synthetic derivatives have inspired the development of new approaches to modify the CsA ring. In turn, these new CsA derivatives have served as tools in the discovery of new roles for cyclophilins. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE This review provides information on the types of cyclosporin derivatives that are available to the many biologists working in this field, and should be of value to the medicinal chemist trying to discover drugs based on CsA. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Proline-directed foldases: Cell signaling catalysts and drug targets.
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Lin W, Reddavide FV, Uzunova V, Gür FN, Zhang Y. Characterization of DNA-Conjugated Compounds Using a Regenerable Chip. Anal Chem 2014; 87:864-8. [DOI: 10.1021/ac503960z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Weilin Lin
- B CUBE Center for Molecular
Bioengineering, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Francesco V. Reddavide
- B CUBE Center for Molecular
Bioengineering, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Veselina Uzunova
- B CUBE Center for Molecular
Bioengineering, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Fatih Nadi Gür
- B CUBE Center for Molecular
Bioengineering, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Yixin Zhang
- B CUBE Center for Molecular
Bioengineering, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
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Lapteva M, Santer V, Mondon K, Patmanidis I, Chiriano G, Scapozza L, Gurny R, Möller M, Kalia YN. Targeted cutaneous delivery of ciclosporin A using micellar nanocarriers and the possible role of inter-cluster regions as molecular transport pathways. J Control Release 2014; 196:9-18. [PMID: 25278258 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Revised: 09/18/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Oral administration of ciclosporin A (CsA) is indicated in the treatment of severe recalcitrant plaque psoriasis. However, CsA is both nephro- and hepatotoxic and its systemic administration also exposes the patient to other severe side effects. Although topical delivery of CsA, targeted directly to psoriatic skin, would offer significant advantages, there are no topical formulations approved for dermatological use. The aim of this work was to formulate CsA loaded polymeric micelles using the biodegradable and biocompatible MPEG-dihexPLA diblock copolymer and to evaluate their potential for delivering the drug selectively into the skin without concomitant transdermal permeation. Micelle formulations were characterised with respect to drug content, size and morphology. Micelle and drug penetration pathways were subsequently visualised with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) using fluorescein labelled CsA (Fluo-CsA) and Nile-Red (NR) labelled copolymer. Visualisation studies typically use fluorescent dyes as "model drugs"; however, these may have different physicochemical properties to the drug molecule under investigation. Therefore, in this study it was decided to chemically modify CsA and to use this structurally similar fluorescent analogue to visualise molecular distribution and transport pathways. Molecular modelling techniques and experimental determination of log D served as molecular scale and macroscopic methods to compare the lipophilicity of CsA and Fluo-CsA. The spherical, homogeneous and nanometre-scale micelles (with Zav from 25 to 52 nm) increased the aqueous solubility of CsA by 518-fold. Supra-therapeutic amounts of CsA were delivered to human skin (1.4±0.6 μg/cm2, cf. a statistically equivalent 1.1±0.5 μg/cm2 for porcine skin) after application of the formulation with the lowest CsA and copolymer content (1.67±0.03 mg/ml of CsA and 5mg/ml of copolymer) for only 1h without concomitant transdermal permeation. Fluo-CsA was successfully synthesised, characterised and incorporated into fluorescent NR-MPEG-dihexPLA micelles; its conformation was not modified by the addition of fluorescein and its log D, measured from pH4 to 8, was equivalent to that of CsA. Fluo-CsA and NR-MPEG-dihexPLA copolymer were subsequently visualised in skin by CLSM. The images indicated that micelles were preferentially deposited between corneocytes and in the inter-cluster regions (i.e. between the clusters of corneocytes). Fluo-CsA skin penetration was deeper in these structures, suggesting that inter-cluster penetration is probably the preferred transport pathway responsible for the increased cutaneous delivery of CsA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Lapteva
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva and University of Lausanne, 30 Quai Ernest Ansermet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Verena Santer
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva and University of Lausanne, 30 Quai Ernest Ansermet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Karine Mondon
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva and University of Lausanne, 30 Quai Ernest Ansermet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ilias Patmanidis
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva and University of Lausanne, 30 Quai Ernest Ansermet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Gianpaolo Chiriano
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva and University of Lausanne, 30 Quai Ernest Ansermet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Leonardo Scapozza
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva and University of Lausanne, 30 Quai Ernest Ansermet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Robert Gurny
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva and University of Lausanne, 30 Quai Ernest Ansermet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Michael Möller
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva and University of Lausanne, 30 Quai Ernest Ansermet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Yogeshvar N Kalia
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva and University of Lausanne, 30 Quai Ernest Ansermet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland.
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Nkongolo S, Ni Y, Lempp FA, Kaufman C, Lindner T, Esser-Nobis K, Lohmann V, Mier W, Mehrle S, Urban S. Cyclosporin A inhibits hepatitis B and hepatitis D virus entry by cyclophilin-independent interference with the NTCP receptor. J Hepatol 2014; 60:723-31. [PMID: 24295872 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2013.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2013] [Revised: 11/20/2013] [Accepted: 11/22/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Chronic hepatitis B and hepatitis D are global health problems caused by the human hepatitis B and hepatitis D virus. The myristoylated preS1 domain of the large envelope protein mediates specific binding to hepatocytes by sodium taurocholate co-transporting polypeptide (NTCP). NTCP is a bile salt transporter known to be inhibited by cyclosporin A. This study aimed to characterize the effect of cyclosporin A on HBV/HDV infection. METHODS HepaRG cells, primary human hepatocytes, and susceptible NTCP-expressing hepatoma cell lines were applied for infection experiments. The mode of action of cyclosporin A was studied by comparing the effect of different inhibitors, cyclophilin A/B/C-silenced cell lines as well as NTCP variants and mutants. Bile salt transporter and HBV receptor functions were investigated by taurocholate uptake and quantification of HBVpreS binding. RESULTS Cyclosporin A inhibited hepatitis B and D virus infections during and--less pronounced--prior to virus inoculation. Binding of HBVpreS to NTCP was blocked by cyclosporin A concentrations at 8 μM. An NTCP variant deficient in HBVpreS binding but competent for bile salt transport showed resistance to cyclosporin A. Silencing of cyclophilins A/B/C did not abrogate transporter and receptor inhibition. In contrast, tacrolimus, a cyclophilin-independent calcineurin inhibitor, was inactive. CONCLUSIONS HBV and HDV entry via sodium taurocholate co-transporting polypeptide is inhibited by cyclosporin A. The interaction between the drug and the viral receptor is direct and overlaps with a functional binding site of the preS1 domain, which mediates viral entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shirin Nkongolo
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, University Hospital Heidelberg, D 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Yi Ni
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, University Hospital Heidelberg, D 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Florian A Lempp
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, University Hospital Heidelberg, D 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christina Kaufman
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, University Hospital Heidelberg, D 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Heidelberg, D 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Thomas Lindner
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Heidelberg, D 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Katharina Esser-Nobis
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, University Hospital Heidelberg, D 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Volker Lohmann
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, University Hospital Heidelberg, D 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Walter Mier
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Heidelberg, D 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stefan Mehrle
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, University Hospital Heidelberg, D 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stephan Urban
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, University Hospital Heidelberg, D 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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Fabian AK, März A, Neimanis S, Biondi RM, Kozany C, Hausch F. InterAKTions with FKBPs--mutational and pharmacological exploration. PLoS One 2013; 8:e57508. [PMID: 23469007 PMCID: PMC3585324 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0057508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2012] [Accepted: 01/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The FK506-binding protein 51 (FKBP51) is an Hsp90-associated co-chaperone which regulates steroid receptors and kinases. In pancreatic cancer cell lines, FKBP51 was shown to recruit the phosphatase PHLPP to facilitate dephosphorylation of the kinase Akt, which was associated with reduced chemoresistance. Here we show that in addition to FKBP51 several other members of the FKBP family bind directly to Akt. FKBP51 can also form complexes with other AGC kinases and mapping studies revealed that FKBP51 interacts with Akt via multiple domains independent of their activation or phosphorylation status. The FKBP51-Akt1 interaction was not affected by FK506 analogs or Akt active site inhibitors, but was abolished by the allosteric Akt inhibitor VIII. None of the FKBP51 inhibitors affected AktS473 phosphorylation or downstream targets of Akt. In summary, we show that FKBP51 binds to Akt directly as well as via Hsp90. The FKBP51-Akt interaction is sensitive to the conformation of Akt1, but does not depend on the FK506-binding pocket of FKBP51. Therefore, FKBP inhibitors are unlikely to inhibit the Akt-FKBP-PHLPP network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Katrin Fabian
- Research Group Chemical Genomics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - Andreas März
- Research Group Chemical Genomics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - Sonja Neimanis
- Research Group PhosphoSites, Universitaetsklinikum Frankfurt, Medizinische Klinik I, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
| | - Ricardo M. Biondi
- Research Group PhosphoSites, Universitaetsklinikum Frankfurt, Medizinische Klinik I, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
| | - Christian Kozany
- Research Group Chemical Genomics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - Felix Hausch
- Research Group Chemical Genomics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Schmidt MV, Paez-Pereda M, Holsboer F, Hausch F. The prospect of FKBP51 as a drug target. ChemMedChem 2012; 7:1351-9. [PMID: 22581765 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201200137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2012] [Revised: 04/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The FK506 binding protein 51 (FKBP51) is best known as an Hsp90-associated co-chaperone that regulates the responsiveness of steroid hormone receptors. In human genetic association studies, FKBP51 has repeatedly been associated with emotion processing and numerous stress-related affective disorders. It has also been implicated in contributing to the glucocorticoid hyposensitivity observed in New World primates. More recently, several research groups have consistently shown a protective effect of FKBP51 knockout or knockdown on stress endocrinology and stress-coping behavior in animal models of depression and anxiety. The principal druggability of FKBP51 is exemplified by the prototypic FKBP ligands FK506 and rapamycin. Moreover, FKBP51 is highly suited for X-ray co-crystallography, which should facilitate the rational drug design of improved FKBP51 ligands. In summary, FKBP51 has emerged as a promising new drug target for stress-related disorders that should be amenable to drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathias V Schmidt
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstrasse 2-10, 80804 Munich (Germany)
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