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Prodrug Therapies for Infectious and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14030518. [PMID: 35335894 PMCID: PMC8953076 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14030518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Prodrugs are bioreversible drug derivatives which are metabolized into a pharmacologically active drug following chemical or enzymatic modification. This approach is designed to overcome several obstacles that are faced by the parent drug in physiological conditions that include rapid drug metabolism, poor solubility, permeability, and suboptimal pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles. These suboptimal physicochemical features can lead to rapid drug elimination, systemic toxicities, and limited drug-targeting to disease-affected tissue. Improving upon these properties can be accomplished by a prodrug design that includes the careful choosing of the promoiety, the linker, the prodrug synthesis, and targeting decorations. We now provide an overview of recent developments and applications of prodrugs for treating neurodegenerative, inflammatory, and infectious diseases. Disease interplay reflects that microbial infections and consequent inflammation affects neurodegenerative diseases and vice versa, independent of aging. Given the high prevalence, personal, social, and economic burden of both infectious and neurodegenerative disorders, therapeutic improvements are immediately needed. Prodrugs are an important, and might be said a critical tool, in providing an avenue for effective drug therapy.
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Markovic M, Ben-Shabat S, Dahan A. Prodrugs for Improved Drug Delivery: Lessons Learned from Recently Developed and Marketed Products. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12111031. [PMID: 33137942 PMCID: PMC7692606 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12111031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Revised: 10/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Prodrugs are bioreversible, inactive drug derivatives, which have the ability to convert into a parent drug in the body. In the past, prodrugs were used as a last option; however, nowadays, prodrugs are considered already in the early stages of drug development. Optimal prodrug needs to have effective absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination (ADME) features to be chemically stable, to be selective towards the particular site in the body, and to have appropriate safety. Traditional prodrug approach aims to improve physicochemical/biopharmaceutical drug properties; modern prodrugs also include cellular and molecular parameters to accomplish desired drug effect and site-specificity. Here, we present recently investigated prodrugs, their pharmaceutical and clinical advantages, and challenges facing the overall prodrug development. Given examples illustrate that prodrugs can accomplish appropriate solubility, increase permeability, provide site-specific targeting (i.e., to organs, tissues, enzymes, or transporters), overcome rapid drug metabolism, decrease toxicity, or provide better patient compliance, all with the aim to provide optimal drug therapy and outcome. Overall, the prodrug approach is a powerful tool to decrease the time/costs of developing new drug entities and improve overall drug therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Arik Dahan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +972-8-6479483; Fax: +972-8-6479303
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Markovic M, Ben-Shabat S, Dahan A. Computational Simulations to Guide Enzyme-Mediated Prodrug Activation. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21103621. [PMID: 32443905 PMCID: PMC7279318 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21103621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Prodrugs are designed to improve pharmaceutical/biopharmaceutical characteristics, pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic properties, site-specificity, and more. A crucial step in successful prodrug is its activation, which releases the active parent drug, exerting a therapeutic effect. Prodrug activation can be based on oxidation/reduction processes, or through enzyme-mediated hydrolysis, from oxidoreductases (i.e., Cytochrome P450) to hydrolytic enzymes (i.e., carboxylesterase). This study provides an overview of the novel in silico methods for the optimization of enzyme-mediated prodrug activation. Computational methods simulating enzyme-substrate binding can be simpler like molecular docking, or more complex, such as quantum mechanics (QM), molecular mechanics (MM), and free energy perturbation (FEP) methods such as molecular dynamics (MD). Examples for MD simulations used for elucidating the mechanism of prodrug (losartan, paclitaxel derivatives) metabolism via CYP450 enzyme are presented, as well as an MD simulation for optimizing linker length in phospholipid-based prodrugs. Molecular docking investigating quinazolinone prodrugs as substrates for alkaline phosphatase is also presented, as well as QM and MD simulations used for optimal fit of different prodrugs within the human carboxylesterase 1 catalytical site. Overall, high quality computational simulations may show good agreement with experimental results, and should be used early in the prodrug development process.
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Tao W, Zhao D, Sun M, Wang Z, Lin B, Bao Y, Li Y, He Z, Sun Y, Sun J. Intestinal absorption and activation of decitabine amino acid ester prodrugs mediated by peptide transporter PEPT1 and enterocyte enzymes. Int J Pharm 2018; 541:64-71. [PMID: 29471144 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.02.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2017] [Revised: 01/28/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Decitabine (DAC), a potent DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) inhibitor, has a limited oral bioavailability. Its 5'-amino acid ester prodrugs could improve its oral delivery but the specific absorption mechanism is not yet fully understood. The aim of this present study was to investigate the in vivo absorption and activation mechanism of these prodrugs using in situ intestinal perfusion and pharmacokinetics studies in rats. Although PEPT1 transporter is pH dependent, there appeared to be no proton cotransport in the perfusion experiment with a preferable transport at pH 7.4 rather than pH 6.5. This suggested that the transport was mostly dependent on the dissociated state of the prodrugs and the proton gradient might play only a limited role. In pH 7.4 HEPES buffer, an increase in Peff was observed for L-val-DAC, D-val-DAC, L-phe-DAC and L-trp-DAC (2.89-fold, 1.2-fold, 2.73-fold, and 1.90-fold, respectively), compared with the parent drug. When co-perfusing the prodrug with Glysar, a known substrate of PEPT1, the permeabilities of the prodrugs were significantly inhibited compared with the control. To further investigate the absorption of the prodrugs, L-val-DAC was selected and found to be concentration-dependent and saturable, suggesting a carrier-mediated process (intrinsic Km: 7.80 ± 2.61 mM) along with passive transport. Determination of drug in intestinal homogenate after perfusion further confirmed that the metabolic activation mainly involved an intestinal first-pass effect. In a pharmacokinetic evaluation, the oral bioavailability of L-val-DAC, L-phe-DAC and L-trp-DAC were nearly 1.74-fold, 1.69-fold and 1.49-fold greater than that of DAC. The differences in membrane permeability and oral bioavailability might be due to the different stability in the intestinal lumen and the distinct PEPT1 affinity which is mainly caused by the stereochemistry, hydrophobicity and steric hindrance of the side chains. In summary, the detailed investigation of the absorption mechanism by in vivo intestinal perfusion and pharmacokinetic studies showed that the prodrugs of DAC exhibited excellent permeability and oral bioavailability, which might be attributed to a hybrid (partly PEPT1-mediated and partly passive) transport mode and a rapid activation process in enterocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhui Tao
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Dongyang Zhao
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Mengchi Sun
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Ziyu Wang
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Bin Lin
- Key Laboratory of Structure-Based Drug Design and Discovery, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Ministry of Education, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Yu Bao
- Department of Pharmacology, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Yingying Li
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Zhonggui He
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Yinghua Sun
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China.
| | - Jin Sun
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China.
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Dahan A, Markovic M, Keinan S, Kurnikov I, Aponick A, Zimmermann EM, Ben-Shabat S. Computational modeling and in-vitro/in-silico correlation of phospholipid-based prodrugs for targeted drug delivery in inflammatory bowel disease. J Comput Aided Mol Des 2017; 31:1021-1028. [PMID: 29101519 DOI: 10.1007/s10822-017-0079-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Targeting drugs to the inflamed intestinal tissue(s) represents a major advancement in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). In this work we present a powerful in-silico modeling approach to guide the molecular design of novel prodrugs targeting the enzyme PLA2, which is overexpressed in the inflamed tissues of IBD patients. The prodrug consists of the drug moiety bound to the sn-2 position of phospholipid (PL) through a carbonic linker, aiming to allow PLA2 to release the free drug. The linker length dictates the affinity of the PL-drug conjugate to PLA2, and the optimal linker will enable maximal PLA2-mediated activation. Thermodynamic integration and Weighted Histogram Analysis Method (WHAM)/Umbrella Sampling method were used to compute the changes in PLA2 transition state binding free energy of the prodrug molecule (∆∆Gtr) associated with decreasing/increasing linker length. The simulations revealed that 6-carbons linker is the optimal one, whereas shorter or longer linkers resulted in decreased PLA2-mediated activation. These in-silico results were shown to be in excellent correlation with experimental in-vitro data. Overall, this modern computational approach enables optimization of the molecular design of novel prodrugs, which may allow targeting the free drug specifically to the diseased intestinal tissue of IBD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arik Dahan
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, 8410501, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
| | - Milica Markovic
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, 8410501, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Shahar Keinan
- Cloud Pharmaceuticals Inc., 6 Davis Dr., Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Igor Kurnikov
- Cloud Pharmaceuticals Inc., 6 Davis Dr., Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Aaron Aponick
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - Ellen M Zimmermann
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - Shimon Ben-Shabat
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, 8410501, Beer-Sheva, Israel
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Tao W, Zhao D, Sun M, Li M, Zhang X, He Z, Sun Y, Sun J. Enzymatic activation of double-targeted 5'-O-L-valyl-decitabine prodrug by biphenyl hydrolase-like protein and its molecular design basis. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2017; 7:304-311. [PMID: 28070705 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-016-0356-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
A primary focus of this research was to explore the activation process and mechanism of decitabine (5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine, DAC) prodrug. Recently, it has been reported that biphenyl hydrolase-like protein (BPHL) can play an important role in the activation of some amino acid nucleoside prodrugs with a general preference for hydrophobic amino acids and 5'-esters. Therefore, we put forward a bold hypothesis that this novel enzyme may be primarily responsible for the activation process of DAC prodrug as well. 5'-O-L-valyl-decitabine (L-val-DAC) was synthesized before and can be transported across biological membranes by the oligopeptide transporter (PEPT1), granting it much greater utility in vivo. In this report, L-val-DAC was found to be a good substrate of BPHL protein (K m 0.59 mM; k cat/K m 553.69 mM-1 s-1). After intestinal absorption, L-val-DAC was rapidly and almost completely hydrolyzed to DAC and L-valine. The catalysis was mainly mediated by the BPHL hydrolase and resulted in the intestinal first-pass effect of L-val-DAC after oral administration in Sprague-Dawley rats with cannulated jugular and portal veins. The structural insights using computational molecular docking showed that BPHL had a unique binding mode for L-val-DAC. As a fundamental basis, the simulation was employed to explain the catalytic mechanism in molecular level. In conclusion, BPHL was at least one of the primary candidate enzymes for L-val-DAC prodrug activation. This promising double-targeted prodrug approach have more advantages than the traditional targeted designs due to its higher transport and more predictable activation, thereby leading to a favorable property for oral delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhui Tao
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Dongyang Zhao
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Mengchi Sun
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Meng Li
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Xiangyu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Structure-Based Drug Design and Discovery, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Ministry of Education, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Zhonggui He
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Yinghua Sun
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China.
| | - Jin Sun
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China. .,Municipal Key Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China.
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Murakami T. A Minireview: Usefulness of Transporter-Targeted Prodrugs in Enhancing Membrane Permeability. J Pharm Sci 2016; 105:2515-2526. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2016.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Revised: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Dahan A, Zimmermann EM, Ben-Shabat S. Modern prodrug design for targeted oral drug delivery. Molecules 2014; 19:16489-505. [PMID: 25317578 PMCID: PMC6271014 DOI: 10.3390/molecules191016489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2014] [Revised: 10/07/2014] [Accepted: 10/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The molecular information that became available over the past two decades significantly influenced the field of drug design and delivery at large, and the prodrug approach in particular. While the traditional prodrug approach was aimed at altering various physiochemical parameters, e.g., lipophilicity and charge state, the modern approach to prodrug design considers molecular/cellular factors, e.g., membrane influx/efflux transporters and cellular protein expression and distribution. This novel targeted-prodrug approach is aimed to exploit carrier-mediated transport for enhanced intestinal permeability, as well as specific enzymes to promote activation of the prodrug and liberation of the free parent drug. The purpose of this article is to provide a concise overview of this modern prodrug approach, with useful successful examples for its utilization. In the past the prodrug approach used to be viewed as a last option strategy, after all other possible solutions were exhausted; nowadays this is no longer the case, and in fact, the prodrug approach should be considered already in the very earliest development stages. Indeed, the prodrug approach becomes more and more popular and successful. A mechanistic prodrug design that aims to allow intestinal permeability by specific transporters, as well as activation by specific enzymes, may greatly improve the prodrug efficiency, and allow for novel oral treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arik Dahan
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel.
| | - Ellen M Zimmermann
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA
| | - Shimon Ben-Shabat
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
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Walls ZF, Gupta SV, Amidon GL, Lee KD. Synthesis and characterization of valyloxy methoxy luciferin for the detection of valacyclovirase and peptide transporter. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2014; 24:4781-4783. [PMID: 25240255 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2014.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Revised: 09/02/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
An amino acid ester derivative of luciferin (valoluc) was synthesized to mimic the transport and activation of valacyclovir. This molecule was characterized in vitro for specificity and enzymatic constants, and then assayed in two different, physiologically-relevant conditions. It was demonstrated that valoluc activation is sensitive to the same cellular factors as valacyclovir and thus has the potential to elucidate the dynamics of amino acid ester prodrug therapies in a functional, high-throughput manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary F Walls
- Center for Molecular Drug Targeting (CMDT), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Sheeba Varghese Gupta
- Center for Molecular Drug Targeting (CMDT), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Gordon L Amidon
- Center for Molecular Drug Targeting (CMDT), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Kyung-Dall Lee
- Center for Molecular Drug Targeting (CMDT), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
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Dahan A, Khamis M, Agbaria R, Karaman R. Targeted prodrugs in oral drug delivery: the modern molecular biopharmaceutical approach. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2012; 9:1001-13. [PMID: 22703376 DOI: 10.1517/17425247.2012.697055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The molecular revolution greatly impacted the field of drug design and delivery in general, and the utilization of the prodrug approach in particular. The increasing understanding of membrane transporters has promoted a novel 'targeted-prodrug' approach utilizing carrier-mediated transport to increase intestinal permeability, as well as specific enzymes to promote activation to the parent drug. AREAS COVERED This article provides the reader with a concise overview of this modern approach to prodrug design. Targeting the oligopeptide transporter PEPT1 for absorption and the serine hydrolase valacyclovirase for activation will be presented as examples for the successful utilization of this approach. Additionally, the use of computational approaches, such as DFT and ab initio molecular orbital methods, in modern prodrugs design will be discussed. EXPERT OPINION Overall, in the coming years, more and more information will undoubtedly become available regarding intestinal transporters and potential enzymes that may be exploited for the targeted modern prodrug approach. Hence, the concept of prodrug design can no longer be viewed as merely a chemical modification to solve problems associated with parent compounds. Rather, it opens promising opportunities for precise and efficient drug delivery, as well as enhancement of treatment options and therapeutic efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arik Dahan
- Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Clinical Pharmacology, P.O. Box 653, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel.
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Sun J, Miller JM, Beig A, Rozen L, Amidon GL, Dahan A. Mechanistic enhancement of the intestinal absorption of drugs containing the polar guanidino functionality. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2011; 7:313-23. [DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2011.550875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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