High-index facets in gold nanocrystals elucidated by coherent electron diffraction

Gold Nanoparticles Modification with Liquid Crystalline Polybenzylic Dendrons via 1,3-Dipolar Cycloaddition

A series of six polybenzylic dendrons with an alkynyl focal point were synthesized for their incorporation to gold nanoparticles. Five of these compounds showed columnar mesomorphism in a wide range of temperatures. These dendrons were reacted with gold nanoparticles stabilized with a combination of a dodecanethiol and 11-azidoundecane-1-thiol. The azido group of the last compound allowed the functionalization of the nanoparticles with the six polybenzylic dendrons by 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition between their alkynyl groups and the terminal azido groups of the thiols. A high efficiency of the cycloaddition process (47-69%) was confirmed by several experimental techniques and no decomposition or aggregation phenomena were detected in the dendron-coated nanoparticles. The involved mechanism and the resulting percentage composition of the final materials are discussed. The results of the ulterior growth of the nanoparticles by thermal treatment are influenced by the size and the shape of the dendron and the temperature of the process. The structures of the final nanoparticles were investigated by TEM, DSC, TGA, NMR and UV-Vis spectroscopy. These nanoparticles do not show liquid crystal properties. However, a melting process between a crystalline and a fluid phase is observed. In the solid phase, the nanomaterials prepared show a short-range interaction between nanoparticles with a 2D local hexagonal order. A near-field effect was observed in the UV-vis spectra by coupling of different surface plasmon resonance bands (SPR) probably due to the short-range interactions. The main novelty of this work lies in the scarcity of previous studies of gold nanoparticles coated with dendrons forming themselves columnar mesophases. Most of the studies reported in the literature deal with gold nanoparticles coated with calamitic mesogens. Additionally, the effect of the thermal treatment, which in a previous paper was shown to increase the mean size of the nanoparticles without increasing their size polydispersity, has been studied in these materials.

Correlating Surface Structures and Electrochemical Activity Using Shape-Controlled Single-Pt Nanoparticles

We report a method for synthesizing and studying shape-controlled, single Pt nanoparticles (NPs) supported on carbon nanoelectrodes. The key advance is that the synthetic method makes it possible to produce single, electrochemically active NPs with a vast range of crystal structures and sizes. Equally important, the NPs can be fully characterized, and, therefore, the electrochemical properties of the NPs can be directly correlated to the size and structure of a single shape. This makes it possible to directly correlate experimental results to first-principles theory. Because just one well-characterized NP is analyzed at a time, the difficulty of applying a theoretical analysis to an ensemble of NPs having different sizes and structures is avoided. In this article, we report on two specific Pt NP shapes having sizes on the order of 200 nm: concave hexoctahedral (HOH) and concave trapezohedral (TPH). The former has {15 6 1} facets and the latter {10 1 1} facets. The electrochemical properties of these single NPs for the formic acid oxidation (FAO) reaction are compared to those of a single, spherical polycrystalline Pt NP of the same size. Finally, density functional theory, performed prior to the electrochemical studies, were used to interpret the experimental results of the FAO experiments.

Advances in the electron diffraction characterization of atomic clusters and nanoparticles

Nanoparticles and metallic clusters continue to make a remarkable impact on novel and emerging technologies. In recent years, there have been impressive advances in the controlled synthesis of clusters and their advanced characterization. One of the most common ways to determine the structures of nanoparticles and clusters is by means of X-ray diffraction methods. However, this requires the clusters to crystallize in a similar way to those used in protein studies, which is not possible in many cases. Novel methods based on electron diffraction have been used to efficiently study individual nanoparticles and clusters and these can overcome the obstacles commonly encountered during X-ray diffraction methods without the need for large crystals. These novel methodologies have improved with advances in electron microscopy instrumentation and electron detection. Here, we review advanced methodologies for characterizing metallic nanoparticles and clusters using a variety of electron diffraction procedures. These include selected area electron diffraction, nanobeam diffraction, coherent electron diffraction, precession electron diffraction, scanning transmission electron microcopy diffraction, and high throughput data analytics, which leverage deep learning to reduce the propensity for data errors and translate nanometer and atomic scale measurements into material data.

Heterometallic Seed-Mediated Growth of Monodisperse Colloidal Copper Nanorods with Widely Tunable Plasmonic Resonances

We report a heterometallic seed-mediated synthesis method for monodisperse penta-twinned Cu nanorods using Au nanocrystals as seeds. Elemental analyses indicate that resultant nanorods consist predominantly of copper with a gold content typically below 3 atom %. The nanorod aspect ratio can be readily adjusted from 2.8 to 13.1 by varying the molar ratio between Au seeds and Cu precursor, resulting in narrow longitudinal plasmon resonances tunable from 762 to 2201 nm. Studies of reaction intermediates reveal that symmetry-breaking is promoted by rapid nanoscale diffusion in Au-Cu alloys and the formation of a gold-rich surface. The growth pathway features coevolving shape and composition whereby nanocrystals become progressively enriched with Cu concomitant with nanorod growth. The availability of uniform colloidal Cu nanorods with widely tunable aspect ratios opens new avenues toward the synthesis of derivative one-dimensional metal nanostructures, and applications in surface-enhanced spectroscopy, bioimaging, and electrocatalysis, among others.

Hydroquinone-Based Fabrication of Gold Nanorods with a High Aspect Ratio and LSPR Greater than 850 nm to Be Used as a Surface Plasmon Resonance Platform for Rapid Detection of Thiophanate Methyl

The use of gold nanorods (AuNRs) as surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) substrates has gained much attraction due to their remarkably aspect-ratio-dependent plasmonic properties. In this report, we described the development of AuNRs with a high aspect ratio and longitudinal surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) >850 nm through a hydroquinone-based fabrication with minor modifications. The synthesis started with the reduction of chloroauric acid (HAuCl4) by sodium borohydride (NaBH4) to make gold nanoseeds from which AuNRs were grown with the aid of silver nitrate (AgNO3), HAuCl4, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), and hydroquinone (HQ). Scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX), Transmission electron microscope (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Ultra-violet-Visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis) were performed to study the shape, size, and structural and optical properties of AuNRs, respectively. The results showed that AuNRs with high aspect ratios (AR > 3) were single crystals with a heterogenous size distribution, and that the growth of Au nanoseeds into AuNRs took place along the [001] direction. AuNRs exhibited two plasmon resonance peaks at 520 nm and 903 nm, while gold nanoseeds had only a plasmon resonance peak at 521 nm. The as-synthesized AuNRs also showed SERS effects for thiophanate methyl, a broad-spectrum fungicide, with the limit of detection down to 5 mg/L of the fungicide. AuNR-coated glass can serve as a SERS-based sensing platform for rapid detection of thiophanate methyl with high sensitivity and reproducibility.

Atomic-Scale Observation of Bimetallic Au-CuOx Nanoparticles and Their Interfaces for Activation of CO Molecules

Supported gold nanoparticles with sizes below 5 nm display attractive catalytic activities for heterogeneous reactions, particularly those promoted by secondary metal (e.g., Cu) because of the well-defined synergy between metal compositions. However, the specific atomic structure at interfaces is less interpreted systematically. In this work, various bimetallic Au-CuO_x catalysts with specific surface structures were synthesized and explored by aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy (AC-STEM), temperature-programmed experiments and in situ DRIFT experiments. Results suggest that the atomic structure and interfaces between gold and CuO_x are determined by the nucleation behaviors of the nanoparticles and result in subsequently the distinctive ability for CO activation. Bimetallic CuO*/Au sample formatted by gold particles surrounded with CuO_x nanoclusters have rough surface with prominently exposed low-coordinated Au step defects. Whereas the bimetallic Au@CuO sample formatted by copper precursor in the presence of gold nanoparticles have core-shell structure with relatively smooth surface. The former structure of CuO*/Au displays much accelerated properties for CO adsorption and activation with 90% CO converted to CO₂ at 90 °C and nice stability with time on stream. The results clearly determine from atomic scale the significance of exposed gold step sites and intrinsic formation of defected surface by different nucleation. The above properties are directly responsible for the induced variation in chemical composition and the catalytic activity.

Crystallographic orientation of facets and planar defects in functional nanostructures elucidated by nano-focused coherent diffractive X-ray imaging

The physical and chemical properties of nanostructures depend on their surface facets. Here, we exploit a pole figure approach to determine the three-dimensional orientation matrix of a nanostructure from a single Bragg reflection measured with a coherent nano-focused X-ray beam. The signature of any truncated (faceted) crystal produces a crystal truncation rod, which corresponds to a streak of intensity in reciprocal space normal to the surface. When two or more non-parallel facets are present, both the crystal orientation and the crystal facets can be identified. This enables facets to be rapidly indexed and uncommon facets, and planar defects, that have been difficult to study before to be identified. We demonstrate the technique with (i) epitaxial core-shell InGaN/GaN multiple quantum-wells grown on GaN nanowires, where surface facets and planar defects are determined, and (ii) single randomly oriented highly faceted tetrahedrahexal Pt nanoparticles. The methodology is applicable to a broad range of nanocrystals and provides a unique insight into the connection between structure and properties of nanomaterials.

Three-dimensional atomic models from a single projection using Z-contrast imaging: verification by electron tomography and opportunities

In order to fully exploit structure-property relations of nanomaterials, three-dimensional (3D) characterization at the atomic scale is often required. In recent years, the resolution of electron tomography has reached the atomic scale. However, such tomography typically requires several projection images demanding substantial electron dose. A newly developed alternative circumvents this by counting the number of atoms across a single projection. These atom counts can be used to create an initial atomic model with which an energy minimization can be applied to obtain a relaxed 3D reconstruction of the nanoparticle. Here, we compare, at the atomic scale, this single projection reconstruction approach with tomography and find an excellent agreement. This new approach allows for the characterization of beam-sensitive materials or where the acquisition of a tilt series is impossible. As an example, the utility is illustrated by the 3D atomic scale characterization of a nanodumbbell on an in situ heating holder of limited tilt range.

Controlled Synthesis of Au@AgAu Yolk-Shell Cuboctahedra with Well-Defined Facets

The synthesis of Au@AgAu yolk-shell cuboctahedra nanoparticles formed by galvanic replacement in a seed-mediated method is described. Initially, single-crystal Au seeds are used for the formation of Au@Ag core-shell nanocubes, which serve as the template material for the deposition of an external Au layer. The well-controlled synthesis yields the formation of cuboctahedra nanoparticles with smooth inner and outer Au/Ag surfaces. The deposition/oxidation process is described to understand the formation of cuboctahedra and octahedra nanoparticles. The Au core maintains the initial morphology of the seed and remains static at the center of the yolk-shell because of residual Ag. Structural analysis of the shell indicates intrinsic stacking faults (SFs) near the surface. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) compositional analysis show an Au-Ag nonordered alloy forming the shell. The three-dimensional structure of the nanoparticles presented open facets on the [111] as observed by electron tomography SIRT reconstruction over a stack of high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM) images. The geometrical model was validated by analyzing the direction of streaks in coherent nanobeam diffraction (NBD). The catalytic activity was evaluated using a model reaction based on the reduction of 4-nitrophenol (4-NTP) by NaBH4 in the presence of Au@AgAu yolk-shell nanoparticles.

Selectivity on Etching: Creation of High-Energy Facets on Copper Nanocrystals for CO2 Electrochemical Reduction

Creating high-energy facets on the surface of catalyst nanocrystals represents a promising method for enhancing their catalytic activity. Herein we show that crystal etching as the reverse process of crystal growth can directly endow nanocrystal surfaces with high-energy facets. The key is to avoid significant modification of the surface energies of the nanocrystal facets by capping effects from solvents, ions, and ligands. Using Cu nanocubes as the starting material, we have successfully demonstrated the creation of high-energy facets in metal nanocrystals by controlled chemical etching. The etched Cu nanocrystals with enriched high-energy {110} facets showed significantly enhanced activity toward CO2 reduction. We believe the etching-based strategy could be extended to the synthesis of nanocrystals of many other catalysts with more active high-energy facets.

Nanoparticle shape, thermodynamics and kinetics

Nanoparticles can be beautiful, as in stained glass windows, or they can be ugly as in wear and corrosion debris from implants. We estimate that there will be about 70,000 papers in 2015 with nanoparticles as a keyword, but only one in thirteen uses the nanoparticle shape as an additional keyword and research focus, and only one in two hundred has thermodynamics. Methods for synthesizing nanoparticles have exploded over the last decade, but our understanding of how and why they take their forms has not progressed as fast. This topical review attempts to take a critical snapshot of the current understanding, focusing more on methods to predict than a purely synthetic or descriptive approach. We look at models and themes which are largely independent of the exact synthetic method whether it is deposition, gas-phase condensation, solution based or hydrothermal synthesis. Elements are old dating back to the beginning of the 20th century-some of the pioneering models developed then are still relevant today. Others are newer, a merging of older concepts such as kinetic-Wulff constructions with methods to understand minimum energy shapes for particles with twins. Overall we find that while there are still many unknowns, the broad framework of understanding and predicting the structure of nanoparticles via diverse Wulff constructions, either thermodynamic, local minima or kinetic has been exceedingly successful. However, the field is still developing and there remain many unknowns and new avenues for research, a few of these being suggested towards the end of the review.