1
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Weinstain R, Slanina T, Kand D, Klán P. Visible-to-NIR-Light Activated Release: From Small Molecules to Nanomaterials. Chem Rev 2020; 120:13135-13272. [PMID: 33125209 PMCID: PMC7833475 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Photoactivatable (alternatively, photoremovable, photoreleasable, or photocleavable) protecting groups (PPGs), also known as caged or photocaged compounds, are used to enable non-invasive spatiotemporal photochemical control over the release of species of interest. Recent years have seen the development of PPGs activatable by biologically and chemically benign visible and near-infrared (NIR) light. These long-wavelength-absorbing moieties expand the applicability of this powerful method and its accessibility to non-specialist users. This review comprehensively covers organic and transition metal-containing photoactivatable compounds (complexes) that absorb in the visible- and NIR-range to release various leaving groups and gasotransmitters (carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, and hydrogen sulfide). The text also covers visible- and NIR-light-induced photosensitized release using molecular sensitizers, quantum dots, and upconversion and second-harmonic nanoparticles, as well as release via photodynamic (photooxygenation by singlet oxygen) and photothermal effects. Release from photoactivatable polymers, micelles, vesicles, and photoswitches, along with the related emerging field of photopharmacology, is discussed at the end of the review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy Weinstain
- School
of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - Tomáš Slanina
- Institute
of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Flemingovo nám. 2, 166 10 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Dnyaneshwar Kand
- School
of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - Petr Klán
- Department
of Chemistry and RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
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2
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Krämer SD, Wöhrle J, Meyer PA, Urban GA, Roth G. How to copy and paste DNA microarrays. Sci Rep 2019; 9:13940. [PMID: 31558745 PMCID: PMC6763488 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-50371-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Analogous to a photocopier, we developed a DNA microarray copy technique and were able to copy patterned original DNA microarrays. With this process the appearance of the copied DNA microarray can also be altered compared to the original by producing copies of different resolutions. As a homage to the very first photocopy made by Chester Charlson and Otto Kornei, we performed a lookalike DNA microarray copy exactly 80 years later. Those copies were also used for label-free real-time kinetic binding assays of apo-dCas9 to double stranded DNA and of thrombin to single stranded DNA. Since each DNA microarray copy was made with only 5 µl of spPCR mix, the whole process is cost-efficient. Hence, our DNA microarray copier has a great potential for becoming a standard lab tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan D Krämer
- ZBSA - Center for Biological Systems Analysis, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Habsburgerstrasse. 49, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany. .,Faculty for Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Schaenzlestrasse 1, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Johannes Wöhrle
- ZBSA - Center for Biological Systems Analysis, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Habsburgerstrasse. 49, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany.,IMTEK - Dep. of Microsystems Engineering, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Georges-Köhler-Allee 103, D-79110, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Philipp A Meyer
- ZBSA - Center for Biological Systems Analysis, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Habsburgerstrasse. 49, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany.,IMTEK - Dep. of Microsystems Engineering, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Georges-Köhler-Allee 103, D-79110, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Gerald A Urban
- IMTEK - Dep. of Microsystems Engineering, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Georges-Köhler-Allee 103, D-79110, Freiburg, Germany.,BIOSS - Center for Biological Signalling Studies, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Schaenzlestrasse 18, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Günter Roth
- ZBSA - Center for Biological Systems Analysis, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Habsburgerstrasse. 49, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty for Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Schaenzlestrasse 1, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany.,BioCopy GmbH, Spechtweg 25, D-79110, Freiburg, Germany.,BIOSS - Center for Biological Signalling Studies, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Schaenzlestrasse 18, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany.,BioCopy Holding AG, Industriestrasse 15, 8355, Aadorf, Switzerland
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3
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Hölz K, Hoi JK, Schaudy E, Somoza V, Lietard J, Somoza MM. High-Efficiency Reverse (5'→3') Synthesis of Complex DNA Microarrays. Sci Rep 2018; 8:15099. [PMID: 30305718 PMCID: PMC6180089 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-33311-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
DNA microarrays are important analytical tools in genetics and have recently found multiple new biotechnological roles in applications requiring free 3' terminal hydroxyl groups, particularly as a starting point for enzymatic extension via DNA or RNA polymerases. Here we demonstrate the highly efficient reverse synthesis of complex DNA arrays using a photolithographic approach. The method is analogous to conventional solid phase synthesis but makes use of phosphoramidites with the benzoyl-2-(2-nitrophenyl)-propoxycarbonyl (BzNPPOC) photolabile protecting group on the 3'-hydroxyl group. The use of BzNPPOC, with more than twice the photolytic efficiency of the 2-(2-nitrophenyl)-propoxycarbonyl (NPPOC) previously used for 5'→3' synthesis, combined with additional optimizations to the coupling and oxidation reactions results in an approximately 3-fold improvement in the reverse synthesis efficiency of complex arrays of DNA oligonucleotides. The coupling efficiencies of the reverse phosphoramidites are as good as those of regular phosphoramidites, resulting in comparable yields. Microarrays of DNA surface tethered on the 5' end and with free 3' hydroxyl termini can be synthesized quickly and with similarly high stepwise coupling efficiency as microarrays using conventional 3'→5' synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Hölz
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Julia K Hoi
- Department of Physiological Chemistry, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Bioactive Aroma Compounds, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Erika Schaudy
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Veronika Somoza
- Department of Physiological Chemistry, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Bioactive Aroma Compounds, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jory Lietard
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Mark M Somoza
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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4
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Zhang X, Xi W, Gao G, Wang X, Stansbury JW, Bowman CN. o-Nitrobenzyl-Based Photobase Generators: Efficient Photoinitiators for Visible-Light Induced Thiol-Michael Addition Photopolymerization. ACS Macro Lett 2018; 7:852-857. [PMID: 35650759 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.8b00435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
In this contribution, three o-nitrobenzyl-based photobase systems were synthesized and evaluated for visible light initiated thiol-Michael addition polymerizations. With a modified structure, the (3,4-methylenedioxy-6-nitrophenyl)-propyloxycarbonyl (MNPPOC) protected base performance exceeds that of the nonsubstituted 2-(2-nitrophenyl)-propyloxycarbonyl (NPPOC) protected base and an ITX sensitized photobase system, with respect to both long-wavelength light sensitivity and photolytic efficiency. In material synthesis, MNPPOC-TMG is capable of initiating photo thiol-Michael polymerization efficiently and orthogonally with only limited visible light exposure and generating a highly homogeneous cross-linked polymer network. This approach enables the thiol-Michael "click" reaction to be conducted with a low-energy, visible light irradiation and, thus, expands its applications in biocompatible and UV sensitive materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinpeng Zhang
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, UCB 596, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Weixian Xi
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, UCB 596, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Guangzhe Gao
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, UCB 596, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Xiance Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, UCB 596, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Jeffrey W. Stansbury
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, UCB 596, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Christopher N. Bowman
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, UCB 596, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
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5
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König NF, Telitel S, Poyer S, Charles L, Lutz JF. Photocontrolled Synthesis of Abiotic Sequence-Defined Oligo(Phosphodiester)s. Macromol Rapid Commun 2017; 38. [PMID: 29144013 DOI: 10.1002/marc.201700651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Revised: 10/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
A photoregulated phosphoramidite iterative process is studied for the synthesis of non-natural, digitally encoded oligo(phosphodiester)s. The oligomers are prepared using two reactive phosphoramidite monomers containing a 2-(2-nitrophenyl)propoxycarbonyl (NPPOC) protected OH group. The stepwise synthesis is performed on an OH-functional soluble polystyrene support, which allows recycling by precipitation in a nonsolvent. Repeating cycles involving phosphoramidite coupling, oxidation of phosphite to phosphate, and NPPOC deprotection by light irradiation at λ = 365 nm are performed in order to prepare oligomers with different lengths and sequences. Synthesis is conducted on a micromolar scale and good recycling yields are obtained in all cases. The use of a soluble polymer support allows an in-depth characterization of the NPPOC photo-deprotection step by 1 H NMR, UV spectroscopy, and size exclusion chromatography, and thus identification of optimal synthesis conditions. After cleavage from the support, the oligo(phosphodiester)s are characterized by tandem mass spectrometry, which confirms preparation of uniform sequence-coded oligomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niklas Felix König
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron UPR22, 23 rue du Loess, 67034, Strasbourg Cedex 2, France
| | - Sofia Telitel
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron UPR22, 23 rue du Loess, 67034, Strasbourg Cedex 2, France
| | - Salomé Poyer
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, UMR 7273, Institute of Radical Chemistry, 13397, Marseille Cedex 20, France
| | - Laurence Charles
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, UMR 7273, Institute of Radical Chemistry, 13397, Marseille Cedex 20, France
| | - Jean-François Lutz
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron UPR22, 23 rue du Loess, 67034, Strasbourg Cedex 2, France
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6
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El Zubir O, Xia S, Ducker RE, Wang L, Mullin N, Cartron ML, Cadby AJ, Hobbs JK, Hunter CN, Leggett GJ. From Monochrome to Technicolor: Simple Generic Approaches to Multicomponent Protein Nanopatterning Using Siloxanes with Photoremovable Protein-Resistant Protecting Groups. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2017; 33:8829-8837. [PMID: 28551995 PMCID: PMC5588097 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b01255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Revised: 05/25/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We show that sequential protein deposition is possible by photodeprotection of films formed from a tetraethylene-glycol functionalized nitrophenylethoxycarbonyl-protected aminopropyltriethoxysilane (NPEOC-APTES). Exposure to near-UV irradiation removes the protein-resistant protecting group, and allows protein adsorption onto the resulting aminated surface. The protein resistance was tested using proteins with fluorescent labels and microspectroscopy of two-component structures formed by micro- and nanopatterning and deposition of yellow and green fluorescent proteins (YFP/GFP). Nonspecific adsorption onto regions where the protecting group remained intact was negligible. Multiple component patterns were also formed by near-field methods. Because reading and writing can be decoupled in a near-field microscope, it is possible to carry out sequential patterning steps at a single location involving different proteins. Up to four different proteins were formed into geometric patterns using near-field lithography. Interferometric lithography facilitates the organization of proteins over square cm areas. Two-component patterns consisting of 150 nm streptavidin dots formed within an orthogonal grid of bars of GFP at a period of ca. 500 nm could just be resolved by fluorescence microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osama El Zubir
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, Brook Hill, Sheffield S3 7HF, United
Kingdom
| | - Sijing Xia
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, Brook Hill, Sheffield S3 7HF, United
Kingdom
| | - Robert E. Ducker
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, Brook Hill, Sheffield S3 7HF, United
Kingdom
| | - Lin Wang
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, University of
Sheffield, Sheffield S3 7RH, United Kingdom
| | - Nic Mullin
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, University of
Sheffield, Sheffield S3 7RH, United Kingdom
| | - Michaël L. Cartron
- Department
of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, United Kingdom
| | - Ashley J. Cadby
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, University of
Sheffield, Sheffield S3 7RH, United Kingdom
| | - Jamie K. Hobbs
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, University of
Sheffield, Sheffield S3 7RH, United Kingdom
| | - C. Neil Hunter
- Department
of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, United Kingdom
| | - Graham J. Leggett
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, Brook Hill, Sheffield S3 7HF, United
Kingdom
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7
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Sack M, Hölz K, Holik AK, Kretschy N, Somoza V, Stengele KP, Somoza MM. Express photolithographic DNA microarray synthesis with optimized chemistry and high-efficiency photolabile groups. J Nanobiotechnology 2016; 14:14. [PMID: 26936369 PMCID: PMC4776362 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-016-0166-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2015] [Accepted: 02/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background DNA microarrays are a core element of modern genomics research and medical diagnostics, allowing the simple and simultaneous determination of the relative abundances of hundreds of thousands to millions of genomic DNA or RNA sequences in a sample. Photolithographic in situ synthesis, using light projection from a digitally-controlled array of micromirrors, has been successful at both commercial and laboratory scales. The advantages of this synthesis method are its ability to reliably produce high-quality custom microarrays with a very high spatial density of DNA features using a compact device with few moving parts. The phosphoramidite chemistry used in photolithographic synthesis is similar to that used in conventional solid-phase synthesis of oligonucleotides, but some unique differences require an independent optimization of the synthesis chemistry to achieve fast and low-cost synthesis without compromising microarray quality. Results High microarray quality could be maintained while reducing coupling time to a few seconds using DCI activator. Five coupling activators were compared, which resulted in microarray hybridization signals following the order ETT > Activator 42 > DCI ≫ BTT ≫ pyridinium chloride, but only the use of DCI led to both high signal and highly uniform feature intensities. The photodeprotection time was also reduced to a few seconds by replacing the NPPOC photolabile group with the new thiophenyl-NPPOC group. Other chemical parameters, such as oxidation and washing steps were also optimized. Conclusions Highly optimized and microarray-specific phosphoramidite chemistry, along with the use of the very photosensitive thiophenyl-NPPOC protecting group allow for the synthesis of high-complexity DNA arrays using coupling times of 15 s and deprotection times of 9 s. The resulting overall cycle time (coupling to coupling) of about 50 s, results in a three-fold reduction in synthesis time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matej Sack
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Kathrin Hölz
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Ann-Katrin Holik
- Department of Nutritional and Physiological Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Nicole Kretschy
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Veronika Somoza
- Department of Nutritional and Physiological Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria. .,Christian Doppler Laboratory for Bioactive Aroma Compounds, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| | | | - Mark M Somoza
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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8
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Kretschy N, Holik AK, Somoza V, Stengele KP, Somoza MM. o-Nitrobenzyl-photolabile Gruppen der nächsten Generation in der lichtgesteuerten Chemie und der Synthese von Mikroarrays. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201502125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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9
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Kretschy N, Holik AK, Somoza V, Stengele KP, Somoza MM. Next-Generation o-Nitrobenzyl Photolabile Groups for Light-Directed Chemistry and Microarray Synthesis. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015; 54:8555-9. [PMID: 26036777 PMCID: PMC4531821 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201502125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Light as an external trigger is a valuable and easily controllable tool for directing chemical reactions with high spatial and temporal accuracy. Two o-nitrobenzyl derivatives, benzoyl- and thiophenyl-NPPOC, undergo photo-deprotection with significantly improved efficiency over that of the commonly used NPPOC group. The two- and twelvefold increase in photo-deprotection efficiency was proven using photolithograph synthesis of microarrays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Kretschy
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14 (UZA II), 1090 Vienna (Austria)
| | - Ann-Katrin Holik
- Department of Nutritional and Physiological Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna (Austria)
| | - Veronika Somoza
- Department of Nutritional and Physiological Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna (Austria).,Christian Doppler Laboratory for Bioactive Aroma Compounds, University of Vienna (Austria)
| | | | - Mark M Somoza
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14 (UZA II), 1090 Vienna (Austria).
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10
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Sack M, Kretschy N, Rohm B, Somoza V, Somoza MM. Simultaneous light-directed synthesis of mirror-image microarrays in a photochemical reaction cell with flare suppression. Anal Chem 2013; 85:8513-7. [PMID: 23968455 PMCID: PMC3776564 DOI: 10.1021/ac4024318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
![]()
The use of photolabile protecting
groups is a versatile and well-established
means of synthesizing high complexity microarrays of biopolymers,
such as nucleic acids and peptides, for high-throughput analysis.
The synthesis takes place in a photochemical reaction cell which positions
the microarray substrate at the focus of the optical system delivering
the light and which can be connected to a fluidics system which delivers
appropriate reagents to the surface in synchrony with the light exposure.
Here we describe a novel photochemical reaction cell which allows
for the simultaneous synthesis of microarrays on two substrates. The
reaction cell positions both substrates within the limited depth-of-focus
of the optical system while maintaining the necessary reagent flow
conditions. The resulting microarrays are mirror images of each other
but otherwise essentially identical. The new reaction cell doubles
the throughput of microarray synthesis without increasing the consumption
of reagents. In addition, a secondary flow chamber behind the reaction
cell can be filled with an absorbent and index-matching fluid to eliminate
reflections from light exiting the reaction cell assembly, greatly
reducing unintended light exposure that reduces the sequence fidelity
of the microarray probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matej Sack
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna , Währinger Strasse 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
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12
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El Zubir O, Barlow I, Ul-Haq E, Tajuddin HA, Williams NH, Leggett GJ. Generic methods for micrometer- and nanometer-scale surface derivatization based on photochemical coupling of primary amines to monolayers of aryl azides on gold and aluminum oxide surfaces. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2013; 29:1083-1092. [PMID: 23244178 DOI: 10.1021/la303746e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
A series of aryl azide terminated thiols and phosphonic acids has been synthesized, and used to prepare self-assembled monolayers on (respectively) gold and aluminum oxide surfaces. The rates of photoactivation were determined using contact angle measurement and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The behavior of a diazirine functionalized aryl thiol was also studied. The rates of activation were found to be similar for all five adsorbates. However, the extent of photochemical coupling of a primary amine was significantly greater for the aryl azides than for the diazirine. A range of primary amines was successfully coupled to all of the azides with high yield. Little difference in reactivity was observed following perfluorination of the aromatic ring. Micrometer-scale patterns were fabricated by carrying out exposures of the aryl azide terminated SAMs through a mask submerged under a film of primary amine. Contrasting amines could be introduced to unreacted regions in a subsequent maskless step. A scanning near-field optical microscope was used to fabricate nanopatterns. Exposure of the azides to irradiation at 325 nm in air enabled selective deactivation of azides. The surrounding surface was functionalized with a primary amine in a maskless process; when a protein-resistant oligo(ethylene glycol) functionalized amine was used it was possible to produce protein nanopatterns, by adsorbing protein to features defined using near-field exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osama El Zubir
- Department of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, Brook Hill, Sheffield S3 7HF, UK
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13
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Klán P, Šolomek T, Bochet CG, Blanc A, Givens R, Rubina M, Popik V, Kostikov A, Wirz J. Photoremovable protecting groups in chemistry and biology: reaction mechanisms and efficacy. Chem Rev 2013; 113:119-91. [PMID: 23256727 PMCID: PMC3557858 DOI: 10.1021/cr300177k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1222] [Impact Index Per Article: 111.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Petr Klán
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic.
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14
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Leggett GJ. Light-directed nanosynthesis: near-field optical approaches to integration of the top-down and bottom-up fabrication paradigms. NANOSCALE 2012; 4:1840-1855. [PMID: 22334357 DOI: 10.1039/c2nr11458e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The integration of top-down (lithographic) and bottom-up (synthetic chemical) methodologies remains a major goal in nanoscience. At larger length scales, light-directed chemical synthesis, first reported two decades ago, provides a model for this integration, by combining the spatial selectivity of photolithography with the synthetic utility of photochemistry. This review describes attempts to realise a similar integration at the nanoscale, by employing near-field optical probes to initiate selective chemical transformations in regions a few tens of nm in size. A combination of near-field exposure and an ultra-thin resist yields exceptional performance: in self-assembled monolayers, an ultimate resolution of 9 nm (ca. λ/30) has been achieved. A wide range of methodologies, based on monolayers of thiols, silanes and phosphonic acids, and thin films of nanoparticles and polymers, have been developed for use on metal and oxide surfaces, enabling the fabrication of metal nanowires, nanostructured polymers and nanopatterned oligonucleotides and proteins. Recently parallel lithography approaches have demonstrated the capacity to pattern macroscopic areas, and the ability to function under fluid, suggesting exciting possibilities for surface chemistry at the nanoscale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham J Leggett
- Department of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, Brook Hill, Sheffield, S3 7HF, UK.
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15
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Agbavwe C, Kim C, Hong D, Heinrich K, Wang T, Somoza MM. Efficiency, error and yield in light-directed maskless synthesis of DNA microarrays. J Nanobiotechnology 2011; 9:57. [PMID: 22152062 PMCID: PMC3269373 DOI: 10.1186/1477-3155-9-57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2011] [Accepted: 12/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Light-directed in situ synthesis of DNA microarrays using computer-controlled projection from a digital micromirror device--maskless array synthesis (MAS)--has proved to be successful at both commercial and laboratory scales. The chemical synthetic cycle in MAS is quite similar to that of conventional solid-phase synthesis of oligonucleotides, but the complexity of microarrays and unique synthesis kinetics on the glass substrate require a careful tuning of parameters and unique modifications to the synthesis cycle to obtain optimal deprotection and phosphoramidite coupling. In addition, unintended deprotection due to scattering and diffraction introduce insertion errors that contribute significantly to the overall error rate. Results Stepwise phosphoramidite coupling yields have been greatly improved and are now comparable to those obtained in solid phase synthesis of oligonucleotides. Extended chemical exposure in the synthesis of complex, long oligonucleotide arrays result in lower--but still high--final average yields which approach 99%. The new synthesis chemistry includes elimination of the standard oxidation until the final step, and improved coupling and light deprotection. Coupling Insertions due to stray light are the limiting factor in sequence quality for oligonucleotide synthesis for gene assembly. Diffraction and local flare are by far the largest contributors to loss of optical contrast. Conclusions Maskless array synthesis is an efficient and versatile method for synthesizing high density arrays of long oligonucleotides for hybridization- and other molecular binding-based experiments. For applications requiring high sequence purity, such as gene assembly, diffraction and flare remain significant obstacles, but can be significantly reduced with straightforward experimental strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christy Agbavwe
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Strasse 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
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Alang Ahmad SA, Wong LS, ul-Haq E, Hobbs JK, Leggett GJ, Micklefield J. Protein Micro- and Nanopatterning Using Aminosilanes with Protein-Resistant Photolabile Protecting Groups. J Am Chem Soc 2011; 133:2749-59. [DOI: 10.1021/ja1103662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shahrul A. Alang Ahmad
- Department of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, Brook Hill, Sheffield S3 7HF, United Kingdom
| | - Lu Shin Wong
- School of Chemistry & Manchester Interdisciplinary Biocentre, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Ehtsham ul-Haq
- Department of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, Brook Hill, Sheffield S3 7HF, United Kingdom
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield, Hicks Building, Hounsfield Road, Sheffield S3 7RH, United Kingdom
| | - Jamie K. Hobbs
- Department of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, Brook Hill, Sheffield S3 7HF, United Kingdom
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield, Hicks Building, Hounsfield Road, Sheffield S3 7RH, United Kingdom
| | - Graham J. Leggett
- Department of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, Brook Hill, Sheffield S3 7HF, United Kingdom
| | - Jason Micklefield
- School of Chemistry & Manchester Interdisciplinary Biocentre, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
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Gaynor JW, Piperakis MM, Fisher J, Cosstick R. Reverse-direction (5'-->3') synthesis of oligonucleotides containing a 3'-S-phosphorothiolate linkage and 3'-terminal 3'-thionucleosides. Org Biomol Chem 2010; 8:1463-70. [PMID: 20204222 DOI: 10.1039/b923545k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis of oligodeoxynucleotides containing 3'-thionucleosides has been explored using a reverse-direction (5'-->3') approach, based on nucleoside monomers which contain a trityl- or dimethoxytrityl-protected 3'-thiol and a 5'-O-phosphoramidite. These monomers are relatively simple to prepare as trityl-based protecting groups were introduced selectively at a 3'-thiol in preference to a 5'-hydroxyl group. As an alternative approach, trityl group migration could be induced from the 5'-oxygen to the 3'-thiol function. 5'-->3' Synthesis of oligonucleotides gave relatively poor yields for the internal incorporation of 3'-thionucleosides [to give a 3'-S-phosphorothiolate (3'-SP) linkage] and multiple 3'-SP modifications could not be introduced by this method. However, the reverse direction approach provided an efficient route to oligonucleotides terminating with a 3'-thionucleoside. The direct synthesis of these thio-terminating oligomers has not previously been reported and the methods described are applicable to 2'-deoxy-3'-thionucleosides derived from thymine, cytosine and adenine.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W Gaynor
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool, UK L69 7ZD
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Yi H, Maisonneuve S, Xie J. Synthesis, glycosylation and photolysis of photolabile 2-(2-nitrophenyl)propyloxycarbonyl (NPPOC) protected glycopyranosides. Org Biomol Chem 2009; 7:3847-54. [DOI: 10.1039/b908404e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Flickinger ST, Patel M, Binkowski BF, Lowe AM, Li MH, Kim C, Cerrina F, Belshaw PJ. Spatial photorelease of oligonucleotides, using a safety-catch photolabile linker. Org Lett 2007; 8:2357-60. [PMID: 16706525 DOI: 10.1021/ol060644x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
[reaction: see text] We report the development of a safety-catch photolabile linker that allows the light-directed synthesis and spatially selective photorelease of oligonucleotides from microarrays. The linker remains stable to light during DNA synthesis, and is activated for photorelease after acidic hydrolysis. We demonstrate that the photoreleased oligonucleotides can be amplified by PCR to produce double stranded DNA. The advantages offered by this linker could aid the development of an automated gene synthesis platform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shane T Flickinger
- The Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 53706, USA
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Wu ZS, Jiang JH, Fu L, Shen GL, Yu RQ. Optical detection of DNA hybridization based on fluorescence quenching of tagged oligonucleotide probes by gold nanoparticles. Anal Biochem 2006; 353:22-9. [PMID: 16626619 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2006.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2005] [Revised: 12/24/2005] [Accepted: 01/10/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A novel system for the detection of DNA hybridization in a homogeneous format is developed. This method is based on fluorescence quenching by gold nanoparticles used as both nanoscaffolds for the immobilization of capture sequences and nanoquenchers of fluorophores attached to detection sequences. The oligonucleotide-functionalized gold nanoparticles are synthesized by derivatizing the colloidal gold solution with 5'-thiolated 12-base oligonucleotides. Introduction of sequence-specific target DNAs (24 bases) into the mixture containing dye-tagged detection sequences and oligonucleotide-functionalized gold nanoparticles results in the quenching of carboxytetramethylrhodamine-labeled DNA fluorescence because DNA hybridization occurs and brings fluorophores into close proximity with oligonucleotide-functionalized gold nanoparticles. The quenching efficiency of fluorescence increases with the target DNA concentration and provides a quantitative measurement of sequence-specific DNA in sample. A linearity is obtained within the range from 1.4 to 92 nM. The target sequence is detected down to 2 nM. This new system not only overcomes many of the drawbacks inherent in radioisotopic measurement or enzyme-linked assay but also avoids the requirement for the stem-loop structure compared with conventional molecular beacons. Furthermore, the background signal that is defined as fluorescence quenching arising from electrostatic attraction between positively charged fluorophores and negatively charged gold nanoparticles is comparatively low due to electrostatic repulsion between negatively charged oligonucleotides. In addition, this is a homogeneous assay that can offer the potential to be monitored in real time, be amenable to automation, eliminate washing steps, and reduce the risk of contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zai-Sheng Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, People's Republic of China
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21
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Richmond KE, Li MH, Rodesch MJ, Patel M, Lowe AM, Kim C, Chu LL, Venkataramaian N, Flickinger SF, Kaysen J, Belshaw PJ, Sussman MR, Cerrina F. Amplification and assembly of chip-eluted DNA (AACED): a method for high-throughput gene synthesis. Nucleic Acids Res 2004; 32:5011-8. [PMID: 15448182 PMCID: PMC521639 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkh793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A basic problem in gene synthesis is the acquisition of many short oligonucleotide sequences needed for the assembly of genes. Photolithographic methods for the massively parallel synthesis of high-density oligonucleotide arrays provides a potential source, once appropriate methods have been devised for their elution in forms suitable for enzyme-catalyzed assembly. Here, we describe a method based on the photolithographic synthesis of long (>60mers) single-stranded oligonucleotides, using a modified maskless array synthesizer. Once the covalent bond between the DNA and the glass surface is cleaved, the full-length oligonucleotides are selected and amplified using PCR. After cleavage of flanking primer sites, a population of unique, internal 40mer dsDNA sequences are released and are ready for use in biological applications. Subsequent gene assembly experiments using this DNA pool were performed and were successful in creating longer DNA fragments. This is the first report demonstrating the use of eluted chip oligonucleotides in biological applications such as PCR and assembly PCR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn E Richmond
- Center of Nanotechnology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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Albert TJ, Norton J, Ott M, Richmond T, Nuwaysir K, Nuwaysir EF, Stengele KP, Green RD. Light-directed 5'-->3' synthesis of complex oligonucleotide microarrays. Nucleic Acids Res 2003; 31:e35. [PMID: 12655023 PMCID: PMC152820 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gng035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Light-directed synthesis of high-density microarrays is currently performed in the 3'-->5' direction due to constraints in existing synthesis chemistry. This results in the probes being unavailable for many common types of enzymatic modification. Arrays that are synthesized in the 5'-->3' direction could be utilized to perform parallel genotyping and resequencing directly on the array surface, dramatically increasing the throughput and reducing the cost relative to existing techniques. In this report we demonstrate the use of photoprotected phosphoramidite monomers for light-directed array synthesis in the 5'-->3' direction, using maskless array synthesis technology. These arrays have a dynamic range of >2.5 orders of magnitude, sensitivity below 1 pM and a coefficient of variance of <10% across the array surface. Arrays containing >150,000 probe sequences were hybridized to labeled mouse cRNA producing highly concordant data (average R(2) = 0.998). We have also shown that the 3' ends of array probes are available for sequence-specific primer extension and ligation reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J Albert
- NimbleGen Systems Inc., One Science Court, Madison, WI 53711, USA.
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Abstract
Several analogues of the 9-phenylthioxanthyl (S-pixyl) photocleavable protecting group have been synthesized, containing substituents on the 9-aryl ring and on the thioxanthyl backbone. Each analogue protected the 5'-hydroxy moiety of thymidine in good to excellent yield. The protected substrates were deprotected in 1:1 water:acetonitrile with irradiation at 300 nm, resulting in recovered thymidine in excellent yield, except for the nitro-substituted analogues which gave substantially lower yields. Substrates with 2,7-dibromo or 3-methoxy substitution on the thioxanthyl backbone were also deprotected efficiently with irradiation at 350 nm. Shorter irradiation times were observed in the less nucleophilic solvent mixture of 1:9 trifluoroethanol:acetonitrile, with no formation of secondary photooxidation products. Photodeprotection with high yields was also achieved in the absence of solvent, with no secondary photoproducts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Coleman
- Department of Chemistry, Loyola University Chicago, Illinois 60626, USA
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Garland PB, Serafinowski PJ. Effects of stray light on the fidelity of photodirected oligonucleotide array synthesis. Nucleic Acids Res 2002; 30:e99. [PMID: 12364616 PMCID: PMC140559 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gnf098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Fabrication of high density oligonucleotide arrays using metal on glass photolithographic masks is inflexible and expensive. Maskless methods using computer-controlled projection have been proposed and implemented, but associated stray light effects on photodirected oligonucleotide synthesis and their analysis have not been reported. We have developed a theoretical approach: it predicts that the stray light content of the output of digital micromirror devices and other spatial light modulators of similar performance (contrast ratio approximately 400) will cause extensive random base insertions. For example, use of a digital micromirror device for synthesis of a 20mer array will result in the majority of oligonucleotide chains being 21mers or 22mers. This chain lengthening effect of stray light would not be preventable when synthesis involves a directly photosensitive 5'-blocking group. If the 5'-blocking group is acid labile and released with photogenerated acid, the presence of low concentrations of weak base will prevent the effect of stray light. We have demonstrated experimentally the anticipated chain lengthening effect of stray light on photoacid-dependent synthesis of oligonucleotides and prevention of the effect by low concentrations of n-octylamine. The application of these findings should facilitate the development of maskless fabrication and availability of high density and high fidelity user-designed arrays for research applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter B Garland
- Section of Molecular Carcinogenesis, The Institute of Cancer Research, Sutton, Surrey SM2 5NG, UK.
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