GERD progressing to diffuse esophageal spasm and then to achalasia

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease Might Induce Certain-Supposedly Adaptive-Changes in the Esophagus: A Hypothesis

BACKGROUND

The increasing prevalence of GERD has become a major concern due to its major health and economic impacts. Beyond the typical unpleasant symptoms, reflux can also be the source of severe, potentially life-threatening complications, such as aspiration.

AIM

Our aim was to support our hypothesis that the human body may in some cases develop various protective mechanisms to prevent these conditions.

METHODS

Based on our experiences and review of the literature, we investigated the potential adaptive nature of seven reflux complications (hypertensive lower esophageal sphincter, achalasia, hypertensive upper esophageal sphincter, Zenker's diverticulum, Schatzki's ring, esophageal web, and Barrett's esophagus).

RESULTS

Patients with progressive GERD may develop diverse structural and functional esophageal changes that narrow the lumen of the esophagus and therefore reduce the risk of regurgitation and protect the upper aerodigestive tract from aspiration. The functional changes (hypertensive lower esophageal sphincter, achalasia, hypertensive upper esophageal sphincter) seem to be adaptive reactions aimed at easing the unpleasant symptoms and reducing acid regurgitation. The structural changes (Schatzki's ring, esophageal web) result in very similar outcomes, but we consider these are rather secondary consequences and not real adaptive mechanisms. Barrett's esophagus is a special form of adaptive protection. In these cases, patients report significant relief of their previous heartburn as Barrett's esophagus develops because of the replacement of the normal squamous epithelium of the esophagus by acid-resistant metaplastic epithelium.

CONCLUSION

We believe that GERD may induce different self-protective reactions in the esophagus that result in reduced acid regurgitation or decreased reflux symptoms.

Distal Esophageal Spasm: A Review

Distal esophageal spasm is a rare motility disorder presenting principally with nonobstructive dysphagia and noncardiac chest pain. In symptomatic patients, the manometric diagnosis is made when >10% of the wet swallows have simultaneous and/or premature contractions intermixed with normal peristalsis. We characterize manometry and barium as complementary diagnostic approaches, and given the intermittent nature of the disorder, one should be always aware that it is almost impossible to rule out spasm. Treatment is difficult; we propose an approach beginning with the least invasive intervention.

Comorbid Dysphagia and Dyspnea in Muscle Tension Dysphonia: A Global Laryngeal Musculoskeletal Problem

Objective

To characterize the associated symptoms of dysphagia and dyspnea among patients presenting with muscle tension dysphonia (MTD).

Study Design

Retrospective chart review performed over a 14-month period from October 2014 to December 2015.

Setting

Voice and swallowing center of a tertiary academic medical center.

Subjects and Methods

Thirty-eight patients with MTD were included for analysis. Clinical data were collected and analyzed, including perceptual voice evaluation and patient-reported outcomes measures.

Results

Among patients with a diagnosis of MTD, the incidence of reported dysphagia during clinical history and examination was 44.7%. Among patients with MTD, 60.5% had an EAT-10 (10-item Eating Assessment Tool) score ≥3 (ie, abnormal). Patients who reported dysphagia and/or had abnormal EAT-10 score (≥3) had significantly greater voice impairment than that of patients without dysphagia (P = .02). Patients who reported dysphagia also had significantly higher Clinical COPD Questionnaire scores than those of patients who reported only dysphonia (P = .002).

Conclusions

Patients presenting for dysphonia who are diagnosed with MTD have a high rate of comorbid dysphagia. Patients who reported dysphagia had significantly higher self-reported voice impairment and greater severity of breathing dysfunction as measured by the Clinical COPD Questionnaire. The coincidence of these symptoms in this patient cohort may suggest an underlying pathophysiology that has yet to be elucidated. Further prospective studies are needed to clarify the underlying cause of dysphagia and breathing dysfunction in the setting of MTD and to investigate diagnostic and therapeutic paradigms.

Achalasia following reflux disease: coincidence, consequence, or accommodation? An experience-based literature review

Achalasia is a motility disorder of the esophagus characterized by the defective peristaltic activity of the esophageal body and impaired relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter due to the degeneration of the inhibitory neurons in the myenteric plexus of the esophageal wall. The histopathological and pathophysiological changes in achalasia have been well described. However, the exact etiological factors leading to the disease still remain unclear. Currently, achalasia is believed to be a multifactorial disease, involving both extrinsic and intrinsic factors. Based on our experience and the review of literature, we believe that gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) might be one of the triggering factors leading to the development of achalasia. However, it is also stated that the two diseases can simultaneously appear independently from each other. Considering the large number and routine treatment of patients with GERD and achalasia, the rare combination of the two may even remain unnoticed; thus, the analysis of larger patient groups with this entity is not feasible. In this context, we report four cases where long-standing reflux symptoms preceded the development of achalasia. A literature review of the available data is also given. We hypothesize that achalasia following the chronic acid exposure of the esophagus is not accidental but either a consequence of a chronic inflammation or a protective reaction of the organism in order to prevent aspiration and lessen reflux-related symptoms. This hypothesis awaits further clinical confirmation.

Is Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease and Achalasia Coincident or Not?

Achalasia and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) are on opposite ends of the spectrum of lower esophageal sphincter dysfunction. Heartburn is the main symptom of GERD. However, heartburn and regurgitation are frequently observed in patients who have achalasia. The diagnosis of achalasia might be delayed because these symptoms are misinterpreted as gastroesophageal reflux. Here, we reviewed the clinical characteristics of patients with the erroneous diagnosis of GERD who actually had untreated achalasia.

Progression of Jackhammer Esophagus to Type II Achalasia

It has been suggested that patients with certain motility disorders may progress overtime to develop achalasia. We describe a 66 year-old woman who presented with dysphagia for solids and liquids for a period of 18 months. Her initial workup showed normal endoscopy and non-specific esophageal motility disorder on conventional manometry. Six months later, due to persistence of symptoms, the patient underwent a high resolution esophageal manometry (HREM) demonstrating jackhammer esophagus. The patient was treated with a high dose proton pump inhibitor but without resolution of her symptoms. During the last year, the patient reported repeated episodes of food regurgitation and a significant weight loss. A repeat HREM revealed type II achalasia. Multiple case reports, and only a few prospective studies have demonstrated progression from certain esophageal motility disorders to achalasia. However, this report is the first to describe a case of jackhammer esophagus progressing to type II achalasia.

Progression of diffuse esophageal spasm to achalasia: incidence and predictive factors

The progression of certain primary esophageal motor disorders to achalasia has been documented; however, the true incidence of this decay is still elusive. This study aims to evaluate: (i) the incidence of the progression of diffuse esophageal spasm to achalasia, and (ii) predictive factors to this progression. Thirty-five patients (mean age 53 years, 80% females) with a manometric picture of diffuse esophageal spasm were followed for at least 1 year. Patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease confirmed by pH monitoring or systemic diseases that may affect esophageal motility were excluded. Esophageal manometry was repeated in all patients. Five (14%) of the patients progressed to achalasia at a mean follow-up of 2.1 (range 1-4) years. Demographic characteristics were not predictive of transition to achalasia, while dysphagia (P= 0.005) as the main symptom and the wave amplitude of simultaneous waves less than 50 mmHg (P= 0.003) were statistically significant. In conclusion, the transition of diffuse esophageal spasm to achalasia is not frequent at a 2-year follow-up. Dysphagia and simultaneous waves with low amplitude are predictive factors for this degeneration.

High resolution impedance manometric findings in dysphagia of Huntington’s disease

Conventional manometry presents significant challenges, especially in assessment of pharyngeal swallowing, because of the asymmetry and deglutitive movements of oropharyngeal structures. It only provides information about intraluminal pressure and thus it is difficult to study functional details of esophageal motility disorders. New technology of solid high resolution impedance manometry (HRIM), with 32 pressure sensors and 6 impedance sensors, is likely to provide better assessment of pharyngeal swallowing as well as more information about esophageal motility disorders. However, the clinical usefulness of application of HRIM in patients with oropharyngeal dysphagia or esophageal dysphagia is not known. We experienced a case of Huntington’s disease presenting with both oropharyngeal and esophageal dysphagia, in which HRIM revealed the mechanism of oropharyngeal dysphagia and provided comprehensive information about esophageal dysphagia.

Risk of esophageal adenocarcinoma in achalasia patients, a retrospective cohort study in Sweden

OBJECTIVES

Achalasia is a motor disorder of the lower esophageal sphincter, which fails to relax on swallowing. Although a greater risk of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma among achalasia patients is fairly well established, no epidemiological study has evaluated the risk of esophageal adenocarcinoma in these patients.

METHODS

We compiled a cohort of 2,896 patients recorded with a discharge diagnosis of achalasia between 1965 and 2003 in the Swedish Inpatient Register. The cohort was followed through 2003 via record linkages with essentially complete registers of cancer, causes of death, and migration. Standardized incidence ratios (SIRs) were used to estimate the relative risk of esophageal cancer in achalasia patients compared to the age-, sex-, and calendar period-matched Swedish population. We further estimated SIRs for esophageal cancer among patients treated with esophagomyotomy.

RESULTS

After excluding the first year of follow-up, we observed excess risks for both squamous cell carcinoma (SIR 11.0, 95% confidence interval [CI] 6.0-18.4) and adenocarcinoma (SIR 10.4, 95% CI 3.8-22.6) of the esophagus. Notwithstanding similar numbers of men and women in our achalasia cohort, 20 of 22 esophageal cancers developed in men (SIRs for adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma were 8.4 and 13.1, respectively). Increased SIRs among operated patients pertained mainly to esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. We found no evidence that surgical esophagomyotomy increases the risk of esophageal adenocarcinoma.

CONCLUSIONS

Male achalasia patients have substantially greater risks for both squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma of the esophagus. Small numbers preclude a firm conclusion about the risk among women.

Diffuse esophageal spasm

The purpose of this article is to review the clinical features, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of patients with diffuse esophageal spasm (DES). The PubMed database was searched with a focus on recent publications, using keywords "DES," plus "epidemiology," "prevalence," "diagnosis," "pathogenesis," "calcium channel blocker," "nitrates," "botulinum toxin," "antidepressants," "dilation," and "myotomy." The reference lists of papers identified in the initial PubMed search were reviewed for further relevant publications.

A Questionnaire Study to Assess Long-Term Outcome in Patients with Abnormal Esophageal Manometry

Patients with unexplained chest pain or dysphagia are often referred for esophageal manometric studies to further investigate their symptoms. Four main manometric abnormalities have been described: achalasia, diffuse esophageal spasm, "nutcracker" (hypercontracting) esophagus, and hypocontracting esophagus. With the exception of achalasia, treatments are of limited benefit and the natural history of these conditions is largely unknown. We sent questionnaires to patients who were investigated at least three years before our study began. They repeated a DeMeester symptom questionnaire that they had completed at the time of their initial study. Questionnaires were sent to 137 patients with diffuse esophageal spasm, "nutcracker" (hypercontracting) esophagus, or hypocontracting esophagus. We also sent questionnaires to 57 patients with dysphagia or chest pain who had had normal esophageal manometry and pH studies. These patients acted as symptomatic controls. Responses were compared using the Wilcoxon signed ranks test. Seventy-two (53%) patients with diffuse esophageal spasm, "nutcracker" esophagus, or hypocontracting esophagus replied. An additional 8 (6%) patients died. Symptom scores in all three conditions had improved significantly over time (p < or = 0.01 for each condition, Wilcoxon signed ranks test). Patients with dysphagia or chest pain but normal esophageal studies had not improved. The significance of diffuse esophageal spasm, "nutcracker" esophagus, and hypocontracting esophagus found at esophageal manometry remains uncertain. Although treatment is often ineffective, these conditions typically run a benign course. Patients can be reassured that their symptoms are likely to improve with time.

The relationship between gastro-oesophageal reflux symptoms and achalasia

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Patients with achalasia can experience heartburn, which may be misinterpreted as gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD), leading to a delay in diagnosis and subsequent treatment. We investigated the relationship between gastro-oesophageal reflux (GOR) and reflux symptoms in a large cohort of patients with achalasia.

METHODS

The symptoms of all patients with a manometric diagnosis of achalasia made over the past 15 years were studied. The types of treatment, onset and pattern of heartburn, lower oesophageal sphincter pressure (LOSP) and 24-h oesophageal pH studies were compared.

RESULTS

A total of 110 out of 225 untreated (48.9%) and 57 out of 99 treated (57.6%) patients experienced heartburn. An oesophageal pH study was performed on 80 patients and GOR was found in only six out of 57 untreated (10.5%) and 10 out of 23 treated (43.5%) patients. A low LOSP (<10 mmHg) was associated with an increased risk of GOR [odds ratio (OR) 14.2; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.6-128.7; P<0.02). Treated patients were also more likely to develop GOR (OR 7.9; 95% CI 2.0-32.1; P<0.005). Neither the LOSP nor previous treatment was, however, a predictor of heartburn. The timing of the onset of dysphagia and heartburn was categorized in 111 patients. There was no significant difference in mean (or median) LOSP between these three groups, indicating that the LOSP is unlikely to predict the occurrence of symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Heartburn is common in patients with untreated and treated achalasia, but is a poor predictor of GORD. Such patients should always be investigated with a 24-h oesophageal pH study to clarify the presence of GORD.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease progressing to achalasia

Two achalasia patients with former complaints of heartburn were examined. Antisecretory drugs were used by the patients when dysphagia occurred. Barium X-ray and esophageal manometry were performed and achalasia was diagnosed in both patients. Twenty-four-hour pH-metry showed significant and long-lasting acid reflux during supine position. Prolonged reflux episodes can be explained not only by the swallow-unrelated transient relaxation of lower esophageal sphincter (LES) and mechanical damage of the esophageal body, but also by its chemical insensitivity. Thus preoperative detection of reflux should determinate either the operational procedure and the postoperative follow up of the patient.

Does diffuse esophageal spasm progress to achalasia? A prospective cohort study

Diffuse esophageal spasm (DES) and achalasia share both clinical and manometric characteristics. Some reports support the notion of progression of DES to achalasia. However, there are currently no prospective data in support of this theory. To assess prospectively the rate of manometric progression of DES to achalasia. Manometry tracings of DES patients diagnosed between 1992 and 2003 were independently reviewed blindly and agreed on by two esophageal experts. Patients with DES who agreed to undergo repeat esophageal manometry constituted the study cohort. Follow-up manometry tracings were evaluated blindly and independently by the same two interpreters to determine the rate of manometric progression to achalasia. Predictors of manometric progression were assessed. A total of 32 patients were diagnosed with DES between 1992-2003. Twelve patients (9M/3F; median age 62 years) agreed to participate and underwent second manometry (mean +/- SD follow-up of 4.8 +/- 3.4 years). Achalasia was diagnosed on follow-up manometry in one patient (8%), seven (58%) patients continued to have DES, three (25%) had normal motility, and one (8%) had nutcracker esophagus. There were no predictors of progression to achalasia based on the initial manometry parameters. A subgroup of DES patients with initial low esophageal body amplitude developed increase in esophageal simultaneous contractions on follow-up similar to the patient who evolved to achalasia. Following were the results. 1) Progression from DES to achalasia is uncommon. 2) DES patients with low esophageal body amplitude may develop increased simultaneous contractions over time. 3) DES remains an elusive diagnosis clinically and manometrically.

Successful surgical treatment for diffuse esophageal spasm

A 74-year-old man, who had previously received curative distal gastrectomy for gastric cancer, was admitted to our hospital with severe dysphagia and weight loss. Barium swallow examination revealed the esophagus to have the corkscrew appearance characteristic of diffuse esophageal spasm (DES). This diagnosis was confirmed by esophageal manometry, which revealed intermittent, simultaneous, high-amplitude (30-100 mmHg) contractions after 65% of wet swallows. The muscle layer was also found to be thickened throughout the spastic region. Long esophagomyotomy with fundoplication was performed after treatment with medication proved ineffective. Myotomy proceeded superiorly to the area under aortic arch and inferiorly 3 cm into the cardiac portion. Fluoroscopy of the esophagus after the operation showed the spastic changes to be absent, and the patient showed improved clinical signs. We therefore recommend long myotomy of the esophageal wall with antireflux surgery for DES with sever dysphagia that is resistant to conservative treatment.

Motility abnormalities in esophageal body in GERD: are they truly related to reflux?

BACKGROUND

Esophageal motility abnormalities have been observed in patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease.

GOALS

The aim of the present study was to determine if esophageal motor disorders in patients with a positive response to the omeprazole test are related to the existence of reflux or they are concomitant findings.

STUDY

A 24-hour pH monitoring and a stationary manometry were performed on 128 patients: 49 of them had normal manometry, 31 hypotensive lower esophageal sphincter, 29 motor disorder in esophageal body, and 19 hypotensive lower esophageal sphincter and motor disorder in esophageal body.

RESULTS

We found an association between the presence of abnormal reflux and motor disorder in esophageal body (chi test; P < 0.05). However, ineffective esophageal motility was the disorder most strongly related to reflux, whereas the hypercontractile disorders were not clearly attributed to it.

CONCLUSIONS

Esophageal manometric abnormalities should be considered cautiously before considering a motor disorder as a consequence of abnormal reflux.

Achalasia presenting after operative and nonoperative trauma

Achalasia has been described following fundoplication and is attributed to vagal nerve damage during surgery. Similarly, other traumatic events to the distal esophagus may be linked to the development of achalasia. Operative and nonoperative trauma as a possible factor in the development of achalasia was studied. A retrospective analysis of patients with achalasia (n = 64) at our institution was performed. Collected data included age, gender, symptoms, and history of operative and nonoperative traumatic events. Comparisons were made to a group of patients with similar symptoms but normal esophageal manometry (n = 73). Achalasia was diagnosed by manometry in 125 patients over a 6-year period. All patients with complete medical records (n = 64) were studied. A history of operative or nonoperative trauma to the upper gastrointestinal tract prior to the development of symptomatic achalasia was present in 16 of 64 (25%). Significantly fewer patients (9.5%) with symptoms of dysphagia, but normal manometry and upper endoscopy, had precedent trauma to the upper gastrointestinal tract (P < 0.05). All cases of nonoperative trauma occurred in motor vehicle accidents. Cases of operative trauma included coronary artery bypass surgery (n = 4), bariatric surgery (n = 2), fundoplication (n = 3), heart/lung transplantation (n = 1), and others (n = 5). Patients with proven achalasia and a history of trauma were more likely to have chest pain (RR, 4.5; P = 0.012) but less likely to have regurgitation (RR, 0.51; P = 0.01) or nausea/vomiting (RR, 0.0; P = 0.27) than those without a history of antecedent trauma. In this series, significantly more patients with achalasia had a history of preceding trauma than did patients with similar symptoms and normal esophageal manometry. Following trauma, patients may be at increased risk for developing achalasia, possibly from neuropathic dysfunction due to vagal nerve damage. Patients with posttraumatic achalasia may have symptoms which differ from those of other achalasia patients.

A review of oesophageal manometry testing in a district general hospital

Although several modalities are available to investigate oesophageal motility disorders, manometry is the gold standard. The procedure is increasingly available in district general hospitals but the clinical utility of this investigation in this setting remains unclear. The aim in this study was to evaluate the use and outcome of oesophageal manometry in a district general hospital. Data on 100 consecutive oesophageal manometry procedures were analysed, taking into account the referral pattern, indications, and results. The indications were gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (preoperative assessment before fundoplication) (58), dysphagia (28), chest pain (12), and epigastric pain (2). Diagnoses were made using predefined standard criteria and were as follows: normal (41), non-specific motility disorder (NSMD) (38), achalasia (15), diffuse oesophageal spasm (4), and scleroderma (2). Of the 58 patients who had undergone manometry as a preoperative assessment of oesophageal motility, 27 (47%) were abnormal. Twenty five (43%) had NSMD and two (3%) had achalasia. Forty eight of these preoperative cases were combined with 24 hour pH recording, which confirmed acid reflux in 35 (73%). The experience reported here reflects the published evidence that the use of manometry is changing. It is now more commonly used for assessment before antireflux surgery and for dysphagia, and the use in the assessment of chest pain is declining. The findings confirm the importance of eliminating achalasia before inappropriate antireflux surgery.

Longterm results of esophageal myotomy for achalasia

BACKGROUND

Achalasia is a progressive, noncurable, motor disorder of the esophagus. Myotomy of the distal esophagus is the principal method of providing palliation. A major controversy is the necessity for a complementary antireflux procedure.

STUDY DESIGN

Forty-two patients were studied by clinical history manometrically, roentgenographically, and endoscopically. Transabdominal Heller myotomy is the preferred approach. Nine patients had Nissen fundoplication and parietal cell vagotomy (group 1), and 16 had posterior gastropexy and parietal cell vagotomy (group II). Initially 16 of 17 patients underwent transthoracic Heller myotomy without fundoplication (group III). Twenty-five patients were followed a mean of 10 years (range 5 to 26 years).

RESULTS

One postoperative death was from adult respiratory distress. Results in group I were excellent in five, good in three, and fair in one. The patient with a fair result developed a diverticulum at the myotomy site and significant reflux at 9 years. Results in group II patients were excellent in 2, good in 11, there was 1 operative death, and no followup in 1. Of the 17 patients in group III, 3 had resection of an esophageal diverticulum, and 3 had closure of esophageal perforation caused by pneumatic dilatation. Results in the 13 patients followed were excellent in 6, good in 5, and poor in 2.

CONCLUSIONS

There is no statistical difference in results by chi-square analysis between transthoracic Heller myotomy without fundoplication and transabdominal Heller myotomy with parietal cell vagotomy and Nissen fundoplication or posterior gastropexy.