1
|
Eichler A, Gramlich G, Kellerhals T, Tobler L, Rehren T, Schwikowski M. Ice-core evidence of earliest extensive copper metallurgy in the Andes 2700 years ago. Sci Rep 2017; 7:41855. [PMID: 28139760 PMCID: PMC5282569 DOI: 10.1038/srep41855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The importance of metallurgy for social and economic development is indisputable. Although copper (Cu) was essential for the wealth of pre- and post-colonial societies in the Andes, the onset of extensive Cu metallurgy in South America is still debated. Comprehensive archaeological findings point to first sophisticated Cu metallurgy during the Moche culture ~200-800 AD, whereas peat-bog records from southern South America suggest earliest pollution potentially from Cu smelting as far back as ~2000 BC. Here we present a 6500-years Cu emission history for the Andean Altiplano, based on ice-core records from Illimani glacier in Bolivia, providing the first complete history of large-scale Cu smelting activities in South America. We find earliest anthropogenic Cu pollution during the Early Horizon period ~700-50 BC, and attribute the onset of intensified Cu smelting in South America to the activities of the central Andean Chiripa and Chavin cultures ~2700 years ago. This study provides for the first time substantial evidence for extensive Cu metallurgy already during these early cultures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Eichler
- Paul Scherrer Institut, CH-5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland.,Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Bern, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - G Gramlich
- Paul Scherrer Institut, CH-5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland.,Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Bern, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland.,Department for Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 3, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - T Kellerhals
- Paul Scherrer Institut, CH-5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland.,Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Bern, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - L Tobler
- Paul Scherrer Institut, CH-5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland.,Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Bern, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Th Rehren
- UCL Institute of Archaeology, 31-34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, UK.,College for Humanities and Social Sciences, HBKU Doha, Qatar
| | - M Schwikowski
- Paul Scherrer Institut, CH-5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland.,Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Bern, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland.,Department for Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 3, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Arienzo MM, McConnell JR, Chellman N, Criscitiello AS, Curran M, Fritzsche D, Kipfstuhl S, Mulvaney R, Nolan M, Opel T, Sigl M, Steffensen JP. A Method for Continuous (239)Pu Determinations in Arctic and Antarctic Ice Cores. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:7066-7073. [PMID: 27244483 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b01108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Atmospheric nuclear weapons testing (NWT) resulted in the injection of plutonium (Pu) into the atmosphere and subsequent global deposition. We present a new method for continuous semiquantitative measurement of (239)Pu in ice cores, which was used to develop annual records of fallout from NWT in ten ice cores from Greenland and Antarctica. The (239)Pu was measured directly using an inductively coupled plasma-sector field mass spectrometer, thereby reducing analysis time and increasing depth-resolution with respect to previous methods. To validate this method, we compared our one year averaged results to published (239)Pu records and other records of NWT. The (239)Pu profiles from the Arctic ice cores reflected global trends in NWT and were in agreement with discrete Pu profiles from lower latitude ice cores. The (239)Pu measurements in the Antarctic ice cores tracked low latitude NWT, consistent with previously published discrete records from Antarctica. Advantages of the continuous (239)Pu measurement method are (1) reduced sample preparation and analysis time; (2) no requirement for additional ice samples for NWT fallout determinations; (3) measurements are exactly coregistered with all other chemical, elemental, isotopic, and gas measurements from the continuous analytical system; and (4) the long half-life means the (239)Pu record is stable through time.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M M Arienzo
- Desert Research Institute , 2215 Raggio Parkway, Reno, Nevada 89512, United States
| | - J R McConnell
- Desert Research Institute , 2215 Raggio Parkway, Reno, Nevada 89512, United States
| | - N Chellman
- Desert Research Institute , 2215 Raggio Parkway, Reno, Nevada 89512, United States
| | - A S Criscitiello
- University of Calgary , 2500 University Dr NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - M Curran
- Australian Antarctic Division, 203 Channel Highway, Kingston Tasmania 7050, Australia
- Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre, University of Tasmania , Hobart 7001, Australia
| | - D Fritzsche
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Potsdam/Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - S Kipfstuhl
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Potsdam/Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - R Mulvaney
- British Antarctic Survey, High Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ET, United Kingdom
| | - M Nolan
- University of Alaska Fairbanks , 505 N Chandalar Dr, Fairbanks, Alaska 99775, United States
| | - T Opel
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Potsdam/Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - M Sigl
- Paul Scherrer Institute , 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - J P Steffensen
- Centre for Ice and Climate, Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen , Copenhagen, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Eichler A, Gramlich G, Kellerhals T, Tobler L, Schwikowski M. Pb pollution from leaded gasoline in South America in the context of a 2000-year metallurgical history. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2015; 1:e1400196. [PMID: 26601147 PMCID: PMC4643815 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1400196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2014] [Accepted: 02/06/2015] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Exploitation of the extensive polymetallic deposits of the Andean Altiplano in South America since precolonial times has caused substantial emissions of neurotoxic lead (Pb) into the atmosphere; however, its historical significance compared to recent Pb pollution from leaded gasoline is not yet resolved. We present a comprehensive Pb emission history for the last two millennia for South America, based on a continuous, high-resolution, ice core record from Illimani glacier. Illimani is the highest mountain of the eastern Bolivian Andes and is located at the northeastern margin of the Andean Altiplano. The ice core Pb deposition history revealed enhanced Pb enrichment factors (EFs) due to metallurgical processing for silver production during periods of the Tiwanaku/Wari culture (AD 450-950), the Inca empires (AD 1450-1532), colonial times (AD 1532-1900), and tin production at the beginning of the 20th century. After the 1960s, Pb EFs increased by a factor of 3 compared to the emission level from metal production, which we attribute to gasoline-related Pb emissions. Our results show that anthropogenic Pb pollution levels from road traffic in South America exceed those of any historical metallurgy in the last two millennia, even in regions with exceptional high local metallurgical activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anja Eichler
- Paul Scherrer Institut, CH-5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
- Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Bern, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Gabriela Gramlich
- Paul Scherrer Institut, CH-5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
- Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Bern, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
- Department for Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 3, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Kellerhals
- Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Bern, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
- Climate and Environmental Physics, University of Bern, Sidlerstrasse 5, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Leonhard Tobler
- Paul Scherrer Institut, CH-5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
- Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Bern, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Margit Schwikowski
- Paul Scherrer Institut, CH-5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
- Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Bern, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
- Department for Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 3, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Kellerhals T, Brütsch S, Sigl M, Knüsel S, Gäggeler HW, Schwikowski M. Ammonium concentration in ice cores: A new proxy for regional temperature reconstruction? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jd012603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
|
5
|
Gilbert A, Wagnon P, Vincent C, Ginot P, Funk M. Atmospheric warming at a high-elevation tropical site revealed by englacial temperatures at Illimani, Bolivia (6340 m above sea level, 16°S, 67°W). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jd012961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
|
6
|
Kellerhals T, Tobler L, Brütsch S, Sigl M, Wacker L, Gäggeler HW, Schwikowski M. Thallium as a tracer for preindustrial volcanic eruptions in an ice core record from Illimani, Bolivia. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2010; 44:888-93. [PMID: 20050662 DOI: 10.1021/es902492n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Trace element records from glacier and ice sheet archives provide insights into biogeochemical cycles, atmospheric circulation changes, and anthropogenic pollution history. We present the first continuous high-resolution thallium (Tl) record, derived from an accurately dated ice core from tropical South America, and discuss Tl as a tracer for volcanic eruptions. We identify four prominent Tl peaks and propose that they represent signals from the massive explosive eruptions of the "unknown 1258" A.D. volcano, of Kuwae ( approximately 1450 A.D.), Tambora (1815 A.D.), and Krakatoa (1883 A.D.). The highly resolved record was obtained with an improved setup for the continuous analysis of trace elements in ice with inductively coupled plasma sector field mass spectrometry (ICP-SFMS). The new setup allowed for a stronger initial acidification of the meltwater and shorter tubing length, thereby reducing the risk of memory effects and losses of analytes to the capillary walls. With a comparison of the continuous method to the established conventional decontamination and analysis procedure for discrete samples, we demonstrate the accuracy of the continuous method for Tl analyses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Kellerhals
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Switzerland.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Jenk TM, Szidat S, Bolius D, Sigl M, Gäggeler HW, Wacker L, Ruff M, Barbante C, Boutron CF, Schwikowski M. A novel radiocarbon dating technique applied to an ice core from the Alps indicating late Pleistocene ages. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jd011860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
|
8
|
Records of volcanic events since AD 1800 in the East Rongbuk ice core from Mt. Qomolangma. Sci Bull (Beijing) 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s11434-009-0020-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
9
|
Knüsel S. ENSO signals of the twentieth century in an ice core from Nevado Illimani, Bolivia. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1029/2004jd005420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
|
10
|
Hardy DR, Vuille M, Bradley RS. Variability of snow accumulation and isotopic composition on Nevado Sajama, Bolivia. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2003jd003623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D. R. Hardy
- Climate System Research Center, Department of GeosciencesUniversity of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts USA
| | - M. Vuille
- Climate System Research Center, Department of GeosciencesUniversity of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts USA
| | - R. S. Bradley
- Climate System Research Center, Department of GeosciencesUniversity of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Knüsel S, Piguet DE, Schwikowski M, Gäggeler HW. Accuracy of continuous ice-core trace-element analysis by inductively coupled plasma sector field mass spectrometry. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2003; 37:2267-2273. [PMID: 12785535 DOI: 10.1021/es026452o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Trace elements trapped in glaciers are important indicators for the characterization of past biogeochemical cycles, the identification of numerous sources and their varying strength, and thus indirectly provide insight into past climate variations. However, this necessitates highly resolved and continuous records of trace elements in ice. To obtain records corresponding to these requirements, a continuous ice-core melting (CIM) device was coupled to an inductively coupled plasma sector field mass spectrometer (ICP-SFMS). Accuracy of this newly developed method was tested by replicate analysis of longitudinally cut ice-core sections (reproducibility) and by comparing results of the continuous method with the conventional decontamination and analysis procedure. The new, fast method is suited to accurately determine concentrations of a number of elements, such as Li, Na, Mg, Ca, Mn, Co, Br, Sr, Mo, and Tl. However, for 18 elements (including Al and lanthanides) observed concentrations were underestimated when analyzed using the continuous method. Possible explanations of these low concentrations are (i) incomplete dissolution of mineral dust particles contained in the ice resulting from a delayed acidification step and/or (ii) adsorption of dissolved trace elements or mineral dust particles on the surface of the ice melting device.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Knüsel
- Paul Scherrer Institute, CH-5232 Villigen PSI, CH-5232 Switzerland.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|