Perceived race-based discrimination, employment status, and job stress in a national sample of black women: implications for health outcomes

Workplace Stress and Productivity: A Cross-Sectional Study

Introduction

The primary purpose of this study was to evaluate the association between workplace stress and productivity among employees from worksites participating in a WorkWell KS Well-Being workshop and assess any differences by sex and race.

Methods

A multi-site, cross-sectional study was conducted to survey employees across four worksites participating in a WorkWell KS Well Being workshop to assess levels of stress and productivity. Stress was measured by the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and productivity was measured by the Health and Work Questionnaire (HWQ). Pearson correlations were conducted to measure the association between stress and productivity scores. T-tests evaluated differences in scores by sex and race.

Results

Of the 186 participants who completed the survey, most reported being white (94%), female (85%), married (80%), and having a college degree (74%). A significant inverse relationship was observed between the scores for PSS and HWQ, r = −0.35, p < 0.001; as stress increased, productivity appeared to decrease. Another notable inverse relationship was PSS with Work Satisfaction subscale, r =−0.61, p < 0.001. One difference was observed by sex; males scored significantly higher on the HWQ Supervisor Relations subscale compared with females, 8.4 (SD 2.1) vs. 6.9 (SD 2.7), respectively, p = 0.005.

Conclusions

Scores from PSS and the HWQ appeared to be inversely correlated; higher stress scores were associated significantly with lower productivity scores. This negative association was observed for all HWQ subscales, but was especially strong for work satisfaction. This study also suggested that males may have better supervisor relations compared with females, although no differences between sexes were observed by perceived levels of stress.

Exploring the Relationship Between Self-Employment and Health Among Blacks

Purpose: There is some evidence that self-employment may improve measures of cardiovascular and general health among the general population; however, no studies have examined this relationship among Non-Hispanic Blacks (NHBs). Studying the health implications of self-employment among NHBs is important because of the disparities that persist in both cardiovascular health and self-employment rates between NHBs and other racial/ethnic subgroups.

Methods: A pooled cross-sectional analysis of data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (2000 to 2014) was used to explore the association between self-employment and the following self-reported outcomes: “no exercise,” fruit consumption, vegetable consumption, days of alcohol consumption, fair or poor health, hypertension, poor mental health days, and poor physical health days among the total population of NHBs and across gender/income subgroups.

Results: We find favorable associations between self-employment and several measures of cardiovascular health (increased fruit and vegetable consumption, reduced reports of “no exercise,” and reduced reports of hypertension) and positive associations between self-employment, poor mental health days, and days of alcohol consumption among the total population. The nature of these associations varies across gender/income subgroup.

Conclusions: Given the disparities between racial/ethnic subgroups with respect to adverse cardiovascular outcomes and the well-documented roles of exercise and blood pressure control in limiting cardiovascular disease, it is important to probe the relationship between self-employment and health among NHBs further.

Does Discrimination Explain High Risk of Depression among High-Income African American Men?

Background: Higher socioeconomic status is known to decrease the risk for poor mental health overall. However, African American males of higher socioeconomic status (SES) are at an increased risk for having a major depressive episode (MDE). It is not known whether perceived discrimination (PD) explains this risk. The current study used nationally representative data to explore the role of PD in explaining the association between high-SES and having MDE among African American men. Methods: The National Survey of American Life (NSAL), 2003, included 4461 American adults including 1271 African American men. SES indicators (i.e., household income, educational attainment, employment status, and marital status) were the independent variables. 12-month MDE measured using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) was the outcome. Age, gender, and region were the covariates. PD was the potential mediator. For data analysis, we used logistic regression. Results: Among African American men, household income was positively associated with odds of 12-month MDE. The positive association between household income and odds of MDE remained unchanged after adding PD to the model, suggesting that PD may not explain why high-income African American men are at a higher risk of MDE. Conclusions: Perceived discrimination does not explain the increased risk for depression among African American males of higher SES. Future research should explore the role of other potential mechanisms such as stress, coping, social isolation, and/or negative social interaction that may increase psychological costs of upward social mobility for African American males.

Job loss and alcohol dependence among Blacks and Whites in a National Longitudinal Survey

We used the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth to test whether the association between job loss and incidence of alcohol dependence differed across Blacks and Whites. Respondents were interviewed annually from 1979 to 1994; DSM-IV dependence was assessed in 1989 and 1994. Analyses included only those employed in 1989 and involved lagged logistic regressions predicting past-year dependence in 1994 from job loss during 1990-1993. Unexpectedly, results showed stronger and more robust associations between job loss and dependence among Whites (AOR = 1.93, p < .05) than among Blacks (AOR = 0.82, nonsignificant). Findings diverge from prior research, suggesting disparities may differ as a function of age and/or time.

The impact of bystanding to workplace bullying on symptoms of depression among women and men in industry in Sweden: an empirical and theoretical longitudinal study

Background

Prospective studies on bystanding to workplace bullying and the health outcomes are scarce.

Aim

To investigate the work environmental risk factors of depressive symptoms among bystanders to bullying in both women and men in four large industrial organizations in Sweden.

Method

The number of respondents at four large industrial enterprises with more than one year at the workplace at T1: n = 2,563 (Women: n = 342; Men: n = 2,227). Bystanders to bullying at T1: n = 305 (Women: n = 30; Men: n = 275). The total number of those with symptoms of depression at T2: Women: n = 30; Men: n = 161. Two thousand one hundred and seventy-seven employees answered the questionnaire on T1 and T2 with an 18-month interval. “To have depressive symptoms” was defined as not having depressive symptoms at T1 but having depressive symptoms at T2.

Results

The number of men who were bystanders to bullying was larger compared to women. However, the proportion of women who were bystanders to bullying and developed depressive symptoms 18 months later was higher in comparison with men (33.3 and 16.4 %, respectively). Further, “Being a bystander to bullying” 1.69 (1.13–2.53), “Rumors of changes in the workplace” 1.53 (1.10–2.14), “Reduced role clarity” 2.30 (1.21–4.32), “Lack of appreciation of being in the group” 1.76 (1.22–2.53) increased the risk of future symptoms of depression. “Job Strain” was not an adjusted risk factor for depression.

Conclusion

Our results support previous findings that bystanding to workplace bullying is related to future depressive symptoms.

Stigma in the mental health workplace: perceptions of peer employees and clinicians

Informed by a structural theory of workplace discrimination, mental health system employees' perceptions of mental health workplace stigma and discrimination against service recipients and peer employees were investigated. Fifty-one peer employees and 52 licensed behavioral health clinicians participated in an online survey. Independent variables were employee status (peer or clinician), gender, ethnicity, years of mental health employment, age, and workplace social inclusion of peer employees. Analysis of covariance on workplace discrimination against service recipients revealed that peer employees perceived more discrimination than clinicians and whites perceived more discrimination than employees of color (corrected model F = 9.743 [16, 87], P = .000, partial ŋ (2) = .644). Analysis of covariance on workplace discrimination against peer employees revealed that peer employees perceived more discrimination than clinicians (F = 4.593, [6, 97], P = .000, partial ŋ (2) = .223).

Breast cancer survivorship: the role of perceived discrimination and sexual orientation

Breast cancer disproportionately affects sexual minority women (SMW) compared to heterosexual women and a small but growing literature indicates that SMW may have diminished survivorship outcomes; outcomes that are measurably and importantly different from heterosexual breast cancer survivors. However, it remains unknown how sexual orientation influences breast cancer survivorship outcomes such as quality of life. One possible route of influence is SMW's perceived discrimination in the health care setting. This cross-sectional study examines SMW perceptions of discrimination as one of the multiple facets of the breast cancer survivorship process. This study assessed SMW breast cancer survivor's perceptions of discrimination during their breast cancer treatment experience and secondarily, examined the role of this perceived discrimination on SMW's quality of life. Sixty-eight purposefully sampled sexual minority breast cancer survivors completed assessments of quality of life, perceived discrimination, perceived social support and perceived stress via an online survey. Statistical analyses point to perceived discrimination and perceived social support as important indicators for predicting SMW's quality of life. Future research on SMW's breast cancer survivorship should include measures of perceived discrimination.

Coping with racism: a selective review of the literature and a theoretical and methodological critique

Racism is a stressor that contributes to racial/ethnic disparities in mental and physical health and to variations in these outcomes within racial and ethnic minority groups. The aim of this paper is to identify and discuss key issues in the study of individual-level strategies for coping with interpersonal racism. We begin with a discussion of the ways in which racism acts as a stressor and requires the mobilization of coping resources. Next, we examine available models for describing and conceptualizing strategies for coping with racism. Third, we discuss three major forms of coping: racial identity development, social support seeking and anger suppression and expression. We examine empirical support for the role of these coping strategies in buffering the impact of racism on specific health-related outcomes, including mental health (i.e., specifically, self-reported psychological distress and depressive symptoms), self-reported physical health, resting blood pressure levels, and cardiovascular reactivity to stressors. Careful examination of the effectiveness of individual-level coping strategies can guide future interventions on both the individual and community levels.

Returning to the "homeland": work-related ethnic discrimination and the health of Japanese Brazilians in Japan

OBJECTIVES

We investigated whether self-reported ethnic discrimination in the workplace was associated with well-being among Japanese Brazilians who had returned to Japan. Further, we examined interactions between discrimination and education on well-being.

METHODS

We obtained data from a cross-sectional survey of Japanese Brazilian workers (n = 313) conducted in 2000 and 2001. Outcomes were self-rated health, psychological symptoms as measured by the 12-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) score, and a checklist of somatic symptoms.

RESULTS

Reports of ethnic discrimination were associated with increased risk of poor self-rated health and psychological symptoms (GHQ-12 score), after we controlled for self-assessed workload, supportive relations at work, physically dangerous working conditions, workplace environmental hazards, shift work, number of working hours, age, gender, marital status, income, education, Japanese lineage, length of residence, and Japanese language proficiency. Further, the relationship between discrimination and self-rated health and somatic symptoms was most robust for those with the least education.

CONCLUSIONS

Ethnic discrimination appears to be a correlate of morbidity among Japanese Brazilian migrants. Future research should investigate how educational and workplace interventions may reduce discrimination and possibly improve health.

Workplace discrimination and health among Filipinos in the United States

OBJECTIVES

We examined the association between work discrimination and morbidity among Filipinos in the United States, independent of more-global measures of discrimination.

METHODS

Data were collected from the Filipino American Community Epidemiological Survey. Our analysis focused on 1652 participants who were employed at the time of data collection, and we used negative binomial regression to determine the association between work discrimination and health conditions.

RESULTS

The report of workplace discrimination specific to being Filipino was associated with an increased number of health conditions. This association persisted even after we controlled for everyday discrimination, a general assessment of discrimination; job concerns, a general assessment of unpleasant work circumstances; having immigrated for employment reasons; job category; income; education; gender; and other sociodemographic factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Racial discrimination in the workplace was positively associated with poor health among Filipino Americans after we controlled for reports of everyday discrimination and general concerns about one's job. This finding shows the importance of considering the work setting as a source of discrimination and its effect on morbidity among racial minorities.

Racial/ethnic discrimination and common mental disorders among workers: findings from the EMPIRIC Study of Ethnic Minority Groups in the United Kingdom

OBJECTIVES

We measured perceived discrimination and its association with common mental disorders among workers in the United Kingdom.

METHODS

We conducted a secondary analysis of a national sample of 6 ethnic groups (n=2054). Discrimination was measured as reports of insults; unfair treatment at work; or job denial stemming from race, religion, or language. The outcome assessed was presence of common mental disorders.

RESULTS

The risk of mental disorders was highest among ethnic minority individuals reporting unfair treatment (odds ratio [OR]=2.0; 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.2, 3.2) and racial insults (OR=2.3; 95% CI=1.4, 3.6). The overall greatest risks were observed among Black Caribbeans exposed to unfair treatment at work (OR=2.9; 95% CI=1.2, 7.3) and Indian (OR=3.1; 95% CI=1.4, 7.2), Bangladeshi (OR=32.9; 95% CI=2.5, 436.0), and Irish (OR=2.9; 95% CI=1.1, 7.6) individuals reporting insults.

CONCLUSIONS

Racial/ethnic discrimination shows strong associations with common mental disorders.