Intelligence, race, and genetics

Exploring attitudes to decolonising the science curriculum-A UK Higher Education case study

Scientific advances are historically linked to colonial actions of past empires resulting in knowledge production biased towards the West with minimal representation of scholars of other ethnicities than White in science curricula in Higher Education (HE). Calls to decolonise science curricula seek to diversify content by acknowledging the role of racism and privilege in the history of science, aiming at creating a HE that is less isolating for minoritised ethnicities and feels welcoming to students of all identities. This case study explored science teaching staff's familiarity with and misconceptions of decolonisation at a UK HE institution using an online questionnaire. We further assessed participants' perceptions of barriers, benefits and risks, training needs, and preparedness to take actions in their teaching. We found that a majority of participants had a positive disposition towards decolonising their teaching, but that critical misconceptions, e.g. linking decolonisation to 'cancel culture' and 'colour-blind' behaviour were common, while important barriers, e.g. a lack of training and constraints on time, halt progress. We provide specific recommendations for staff training and a brief historical background relevant to life sciences. By supporting teachers, that train future generations of scientists, to decolonise the curriculum we can improve equity in HE, academia, and society.

The Revision and Application of Aurora in China: Based on Successful Intelligence

Aurora Battery is a corresponding test of successful intelligence. This study aims to examine the factorial structure of the Chinese version of Aurora Battery and to investigate its internal consistency and validity, as well as to discover the developmental features of Chinese students. A total number of 2007 students were recruited from 13 schools across eastern, central, and western China, ranging from 4th to 8th grade (mean age = 12.29 years) and among them, 43.9% are girls. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to examine the factorial structure. Among the tested models, a second-order factor model, in which the three ability factors serve as indicators of a general factor, provided an acceptable model fit to the data. Moreover, measurement invariance across gender and grades were supported, which suggests the mean scores of analytical, creative, and practical abilities are comparable in this research. The criterion-related validity analysis suggests that the battery and its three subscales have good criterion validity. The scale reliability analysis shows that the Cronbach's alpha and the McDonald's omega value of the whole test were .84 and .87, respectively, indicating the scale's internal reliability is good. For ability differences among grades, students' analytical and practical abilities increase across all grades, while creativity presents an upward trend from grade 4 to 6, followed by a downward trend from grade 6 to 7, and an increase from grade 7 to 8. Female students outperform male students on both analytical and creative ability, while with no obvious difference on practical abilities.

Deconstructing institutional racism and the social construction of whiteness: A strategy for professional competence training in culture and migration mental health

The position presented in this article draws on the professional insights of the authors, reflecting on issues of global political importance in culture and migration mental health. As institutional theory perspectives continue to develop, solutions to complex social problems such as racism require embodied knowledge if the lines of authority and basic occupational routines are to be meaningfully renegotiated. Embodied knowledge is socially situated and self-reflexive and reflects cumulative and marginalized experiences that contribute to a better understanding of institutional racism and the social construction of whiteness. The authors foreground the development of critical consciousness and emotional literacy in order to be more professionally competent in institutional contexts of mental health training, education and practice. To this end, elements of due process, transparency, inclusiveness, community engagement and accountability are at the center of a political and intellectual movement towards epistemological justice to promote antiracism and social justice in culture and migration mental health. The authors define decolonial intersectionality as a clear philosophical vision outlining how best to respond to those at risk of experiencing racism and the associated mental health burdens.

There’s nothing as practical as understanding the nature of theory: A phenomenographic study of management educators’ implicit theories of theory

Although teaching in Business Schools takes a theory-driven perspective, there are multiple different interpretations of what this means. We make a contribution by examining how management educators define ‘theory’ and explore how differing definitions lead to variations in the way that teaching is conceptualised and designed. We adopt phenomenographic methods to reveal a five-level hierarchy of theory definitions ranging from simple descriptive notions of ‘theory as an idea’ to more explanatory definitions with causal and practice implications. This hierarchy shapes the way management educators design their teaching with those with the most sophisticated understanding of theory being the most practically focused in their teaching. Although all the interviewees view theory as having an interventional purpose to shape or change managerial action, management educators are haphazard in the ways they teach students to apply theory. We conclude by discussing the implications of these findings for the essential–non-essentialist debate in management education and suggest avenues for future research.

Adaptive Behavior as an Alternative Outcome to Intelligence Quotient in Studies of Children at Risk: A Study of Preschool-Aged Children in Flint, MI, USA

Intelligence quotient (IQ) is commonly measured in child development studies, while adaptive behavior is less frequently considered. Given its associations with functional outcomes in children with neurodevelopmental disabilities, adaptive behavior may be a useful outcome in general population samples, as well. This study aimed to compare social and environmental correlates of adaptive behavior vs. IQ in a sample of preschoolers exposed to the Flint water crisis (N = 184). Mother-child dyads were recruited from the community and administered a comprehensive battery to obtain information about child neurodevelopmental functioning, including direct assessment of IQ via the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence and assessment of parent-reported adaptive functioning via the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales. Multiple social environmental factors were explored as potential correlates of child outcomes (i.e., IQ and adaptive behavior), and robust correlates were identified using a data-driven approach [i.e., least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression]. We then examined associations between the LASSO-selected predictors and IQ and adaptive behavior while controlling for child age, child sex, and maternal age. Children in this sample showed relative strength in adaptive behaviors, with scores in the adequate range, while average IQs fell in the low-average range. Adaptive behavior was significantly associated with maternal nurturance practices, while IQ was associated with the maternal education level. Implications for the use of adaptive behavior as an outcome measure in studies of children at an increased risk for neurodevelopmental problems are discussed.

The big g‐factor of national cognitive ability

The response deals with several controversial issues: theoretical concepts of cognitive abilities, their cultural relativity in definition or level, the meaning and validity of national cognitive ability, methodological questions like the ecological fallacy, the variance of intelligence at different levels of observation, multi‐level analysis, the correctness and importance of levels of analysis in cognitive‐ability research, the aggregation and adjustment process, and the similarities of different cognitive assessment approaches. Central to this research are questions of causality (the causes and consequences of national cognitive‐ability homogeneity and level), of malleability of these levels, and of ethical and political consequences of intelligence research. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Simplifying and Facilitating Comprehension: The “as if” Heuristic and Its Implications for Psychological Science

Simplicity is a fundamental tenet of cognition intended to cope with a complex and intricate world. Based on the writings of the German philosopher Hans Vaihinger, this article introduces a wide-ranging simplification scheme denoted the “as if” heuristic. Following this heuristic, much of our productive and constructive thoughts about the world, specifically in science, are based on idealized fictitious assumptions. Although descriptions of the world as portrayed by psychological models and theories may contain fictitious elements (antithetical or at least indifferent to the search for truth), they afford a simplification tool that facilitates our comprehension of a complex and obscured world. Numerous examples from the psychological literature in which the “as if” heuristic is apparent are presented. Specifically, we analyze the implications of exploiting the heuristic for the development of psychological constructs, theory building, and the foundations of psychological measurement. While highlighting the gains acquired from the use of the “as if” heuristic, we also discuss its possible pitfalls if not properly used.

It's time to move beyond the "Great Chain of Being"

The target article provides an anthropocentric model of understanding intelligence in nonhuman animals. Such an idea dates back to Plato and, more recently, Lovejoy: On Earth, humans are at the top and other animals at successively lower levels. We then evaluate these other animals by our anthropocentric folk theories of their intelligence rather than by their own adaptive requirements.

Some Lessons From a Symposium on Cultural Psychological Science

In this concluding essay, I summarize some of the main points of each of the contributors and attempt to highlight their importance for psychological science and for everyday life. I bring in some examples of research from my own research group over the years that reinforce many of the conclusions reached by the contributors. The purpose of this symposium on cultural psychological science is, we hope, to teach some lessons that could not easily be learned except through cultural research. My goal in this final essay is to consider what I believe to be a primary lesson of each contribution. I attempt to illustrate the considerable relevance of each of these contributions to contemporary society. The views expressed here are solely my own, and of course readers may find much to disagree with; hopefully, they will find some things to agree with as well!

Whiteness

This paper seeks to make meaning of the experience of being white in the United States at this point in history. The self-awareness of white people is limited by a blind spot around the meaning and impact of being white in a multiracial society. Using psychoanalytic and literary methodology, the author seeks to cast light with which to explore this blind spot. Everyday experiences are used to illustrate the widely pervasive impact of race in the lives of white people, and a clinical vignette illustrates how race might show up in a white-on-white psychotherapy. Enactments within this paper are noted when they are evident to the author

Mountain Climbing in the Dark: Introduction to the Special Symposium on the Future Direction of Psychological Science

This special symposium in Perspectives on Psychological Science answers the question, “Do you believe the field of psychological science is headed in the right direction?” Respondents are a sampling of Association for Psychological Science award winners over the past 5 years dating back from publication of this symposium.

Measuring Scientific Reasoning for Graduate Admissions in Psychology and Related Disciplines

In two studies, we examined the convergent and discriminant validation of a new assessment of scientific reasoning that could be used for graduate admissions in psychology, educational psychology, human development, and in the psychological sciences more generally. The full assessment ultimately consisted of tests of generating hypotheses, generating experiments, drawing conclusions, serving as a reviewer of a scientific article, and serving as an editor of a scientific journal. The tests had generally good convergent-discriminant validity. Certain socially defined ethnic/racial group differences were observed.

Further implications in analyzing contempt in modern society

The target article by Gervais & Fessler represents a comprehensive analysis of contempt but is not fully adequate in addressing how contempt produces hatred, how contempt is used manipulatively by aspiring leaders, and how contempt can be cured or at least mitigated. This commentary addresses these concerns.

The Impact of Special Health Care Needs on Academic Achievement in Children Born Prematurely

BACKGROUND

Preterm, low-birth-weight (LBW) children are at increased risk for poor academic achievement and special health care needs (SHCN) compared to term-born peers. It is not known how having SHCN during childhood modifies the relationship between LBW and achievement over time.

METHODS

We used data from the Infant Health and Development Program, a multisite randomized trial of an intervention for preterm, LBW infants with longitudinal follow-up. Primary outcome measures were Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Academic Achievement math and reading scores at age 8 and 18 years. Primary predictor was having a SHCN, defined by prescription medication and medical services use, receipt of special therapies, or any functional limitation. We used repeated measures multivariate analysis of covariance to test the effect of SHCN on achievement at 8 and 18 years and effect modification by IQ.

RESULTS

The 576 participants had a mean body weight of 1798.1 ± 455.0 g and a median gestational age of 33 weeks (range, 26-37 weeks). Mean achievement scores were as follows: math (age 8) 97.5 ± 21.6, math (age 18) 90.1 ± 18.3, reading (age 8) 99.0 ± 20.1, and reading (age 18) 96.8 ± 23.5. Mean full scale IQ at age 8 was 92.3 ± 18.2. Eighty percent had a SHCN. Mean achievement scores were significantly different between those with and without SHCN in both math and reading. There was no evidence of effect modification by IQ.

CONCLUSIONS

SHCNs are associated with poor academic achievement. Targeted interventions for improving performance outcomes by reducing the burden of chronic health problems may be accomplished through prevention strategies or efforts to limit the frequency and severity of symptoms.

Twenty Years of Stereotype Threat Research: A Review of Psychological Mediators

This systematic literature review appraises critically the mediating variables of stereotype threat. A bibliographic search was conducted across electronic databases between 1995 and 2015. The search identified 45 experiments from 38 articles and 17 unique proposed mediators that were categorized into affective/subjective (n = 6), cognitive (n = 7) and motivational mechanisms (n = 4). Empirical support was accrued for mediators such as anxiety, negative thinking, and mind-wandering, which are suggested to co-opt working memory resources under stereotype threat. Other research points to the assertion that stereotype threatened individuals may be motivated to disconfirm negative stereotypes, which can have a paradoxical effect of hampering performance. However, stereotype threat appears to affect diverse social groups in different ways, with no one mediator providing unequivocal empirical support. Underpinned by the multi-threat framework, the discussion postulates that different forms of stereotype threat may be mediated by distinct mechanisms.

Considerations Relating to the Study of Group Differences in Intelligence

There are signs that the debate over racial and gender differences in intelligence is about to begin again. In this article we will be concerned primarily with racial differences but will make remarks about gender differences where applicable. Previously there have been bitter arguments over whether or not races exist, over whether it is either important or proper to study racial and gender differences in intelligence, and over the conclusions that have been drawn about environmental and genetic causes as determinants of these differences. We argue that races do, indeed, exist and that studying differences in cognitive competence between groups is a reasonable thing to do. We also point out that past research on both racial and gender differences in intelligence has been marked by methodological errors and overgeneralizations by researchers on all sides of the issue. We propose ten principles of design, analysis, and reporting that ought to be considered carefully when doing or evaluating research in this area.

Disability in Multicultural Theory

Multicultural theorists in education tend to treat disability as part of cultural diversity and apply a minority group model to disability rights. We critically examine the fundamental presuppositions and social justice issues behind this assimilation of disability into a multicultural frame of reference. The implications of the neutralization of disability are discussed. Reasons for reconciling different views of special education and multicultural education to better achieve social justice are detailed. Policy implications of noting the differences between people with disabilities and minority groups are suggested.

Intelligence

Intelligence is the ability to learn from experience and to adapt to, shape, and select environments. Intelligence as measured by (raw scores on) conventional standardized tests varies across the lifespan, and also across generations. Intelligence can be understood in part in terms of the biology of the brain—especially with regard to the functioning in the prefrontal cortex—and also correlates with brain size, at least within humans. Studies of the effects of genes and environment suggest that the heritability coefficient (ratio of genetic to phenotypic variation) is between .4 and .8, although heritability varies as a function of socioeconomic status and other factors. Racial differences in measured intelligence have been observed, but race is a socially constructed rather than biological variable, so such differences are difficult to interpret.

Intelligence

Intelligence is the ability to learn from past experience and, in general, to adapt to, shape, and select environments. Aspects of intelligence are measured by standardized tests of intelligence. Average raw (number-correct) scores on such tests vary across the life span and also across generations, as well as across ethnic and socioeconomic groups. Intelligence can be understood in part in terms of the biology of the brain-especially with regard to the functioning in the prefrontal cortex. Measured values correlate with brain size, at least within humans. The heritability coefficient (ratio of genetic to phenotypic variation) is between 0.4 and 0.8. But genes always express themselves through environment. Heritability varies as a function of a number of factors, including socioeconomic status and range of environments. Racial-group differences in measured intelligence have been reported, but race is a socially constructed rather than biological variable. As a result, these differences are difficult to interpret. Different cultures have different conceptions of the nature of intelligence, and also require different skills in order to express intelligence in the environment. WIREs Cogn Sci 2012 doi: 10.1002/wcs.1193 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

External measures of cognition

The human brain is undoubtedly the most impressive, complex, and intricate organ that has evolved over time. It is also probably the least understood, and for that reason, the one that is currently attracting the most attention. In fact, the number of comparative analyses that focus on the evolution of brain size in Homo sapiens and other species has increased dramatically in recent years. In neuroscience, no other issue has generated so much interest and been the topic of so many heated debates as the difference in brain size between socially defined population groups, both its connotations and implications. For over a century, external measures of cognition have been related to intelligence. However, it is still unclear whether these measures actually correspond to cognitive abilities. In summary, this paper must be reviewed with this premise in mind.

Human genomics: challenges for African Americans and policy implications for direct social work practice

Recent advancements in the scientific study of the human genome may benefit African Americans through increased knowledge of the causes and cures for diseases that disproportionately affect them. Other potential benefits are far reaching and include legal and socioeconomic importance for the African American community. Although these benefits have tremendous appeal, advancements in genomic science pose significant social issues for African Americans. Disparities in access, insensitive and discriminatory programming, a lack of appreciation of environmental factors, and misuse of genetic databases are among the challenges for African Americans. This article identifies the major benefits and challenges of human genomics cited in literature from various disciplines and discusses policy implications for direct social work practice. The author explains the importance of social work involvement in shaping genetic policies and outlines traditional roles social workers may play in establishing ethnic-sensitive public policies and agency practices to protect the interests of African Americans who interface with the rapidly expanding field of human genomics.

Challenges in phenotype definition in the whole-genome era: multivariate models of memory and intelligence

Refining phenotypes for the study of neuropsychiatric disorders is of paramount importance in neuroscience. Poor phenotype definition provides the greatest obstacle for making progress in disorders like schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and autism. Using freely available informatics tools developed by the Consortium for Neuropsychiatric Phenomics (CNP), we provide a framework for defining and refining latent constructs used in neuroscience research and then apply this strategy to review known genetic contributions to memory and intelligence in healthy individuals. This approach can help us begin to build multi-level phenotype models that express the interactions between constructs necessary to understand complex neuropsychiatric diseases. These results are available online through the http://www.phenowiki.org database. Further work needs to be done in order to provide consensus-building applications for the broadly defined constructs used in neuroscience research.

The Rainbow and Kaleidoscope Projects

It is possible, in admissions to higher education, to increase academic excellence and diversity simultaneously. This article reviews how a theory of successful intelligence can be used to accomplish both of these goals. The theory postulates that intelligence comprises creative skills in generating novel ideas, analytical skills in discerning whether they are good ideas, and practical skills in implementing the ideas and persuading others of their worth. The article summarizes several projects designed to simultaneously boost academic excellence and increase diversity in entering classes. In the Rainbow Project, we found that it was possible substantially to increase prediction of first-year university academic performance and simultaneously reduce ethnic-group differences on the predictive test, relative to a standardized test used for admissions in the United States. In the Kaleidoscope Project, we found that students admitted for expanded skills performed as well as did other students, without the ethnic-group differences typically obtained in such measures and excelled in active citizenship and leadership activities.

From Speculation to Epistemological Violence in Psychology

Based on historical and theoretical reflections it is argued that speculation cannot be eradicated from psychology and that it is a necessary part of empirical research, specifically when it concerns the interpretation of data. The quality of those interpretative speculations of data is particularly relevant when they concern human groups and differences between them. The term epistemological violence (EV) is introduced in order to identify interpretations that construct the `Other' as problematic or inferior, with implicit or explicit negative consequences for the `Other,' even when empirical results allow for meaningful, equally compelling, alternative interpretations. These interpretations of data are presented as `knowledge' when, in fact, harm is inflicted through them. Examples of EV in the context of `race' are briefly discussed. The concept of EV also demonstrates that the traditional separation of `is' and `ought' is problematic. Reflections on epistemological-ethical issues are provided.

Understanding barriers to health care: a review of disparities in health care services among indigenous populations

OBJECTIVES

To review the current status of health care access and utilization among Indigenous people in the North America, Australia and New Zealand.

STUDY DESIGN

Literature review.

METHODS

A systematic search and critical review of relevant studies using online searches of electronic databases (PubMed, PsychINFO, MEDLINE) that examined issues relating to health care utilization and access.

RESULTS

Most studies found that health care access and utilization rates were found to be significantly lower among Indigenous populations. Factors such as rural location, communication and socio-economic status were found to be barriers to health care services that disproportionately affected Indigenous communities compared with the general population.

CONCLUSIONS

Inequalities in health care access and utilization among Indigenous populations may play an important role in understanding why disparities in the health status of Indigenous populations continue to exist despite public health interventions. Further research is needed to understand the factors that contribute to these inequalities and to develop specific interventions to increase access and utilization among Indigenous populations.