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Abstract
The great increase in the study of dog cognition in the current century has yielded insights into canine cognition in a variety of domains. In this review, we seek to place our enhanced understanding of canine cognition into context. We argue that in order to assess dog cognition, we need to regard dogs from three different perspectives: phylogenetically, as carnivoran and specifically a canid; ecologically, as social, cursorial hunters; and anthropogenically, as a domestic animal. A principled understanding of canine cognition should therefore involve comparing dogs' cognition with that of other carnivorans, other social hunters, and other domestic animals. This paper contrasts dog cognition with what is known about cognition in species that fit into these three categories, with a particular emphasis on wolves, cats, spotted hyenas, chimpanzees, dolphins, horses, and pigeons. We cover sensory cognition, physical cognition, spatial cognition, social cognition, and self-awareness. Although the comparisons are incomplete, because of the limited range of studies of some of the other relevant species, we conclude that dog cognition is influenced by the membership of all three of these groups, and taking all three groups into account, dog cognition does not look exceptional.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen E G Lea
- Department of Psychology, University of Exeter, Washington Singer Laboratories, Exeter, EX4 4QG, UK.
| | - Britta Osthaus
- School of Psychology, Politics and Sociology, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, CT1 1QU, UK
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2
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Heberlein MTE, Manser MB, Turner DC. Deceptive-like behaviour in dogs (Canis familiaris). Anim Cogn 2017; 20:511-520. [PMID: 28251387 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-017-1078-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2016] [Revised: 02/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Deception, the use of false signals to modify the behaviour of the receiver, occurs in low frequencies even in stable signalling systems. For example, it can be advantageous for subordinate individuals to deceive in competitive situations. We investigated in a three-way choice task whether dogs are able to mislead a human competitor, i.e. if they are capable of tactical deception. During training, dogs experienced the role of their owner, as always being cooperative, and two unfamiliar humans, one acting 'cooperatively' by giving food and the other being 'competitive' and keeping the food for themselves. During the test, the dog had the options to lead one of these partners to one of the three potential food locations: one contained a favoured food item, the other a non-preferred food item and the third remained empty. After having led one of the partners, the dog always had the possibility of leading its cooperative owner to one of the food locations. Therefore, a dog would have a direct benefit from misleading the competitive partner since it would then get another chance to receive the preferred food from the owner. On the first test day, the dogs led the cooperative partner to the preferred food box more often than expected by chance and more often than the competitive partner. On the second day, they even led the competitive partner less often to the preferred food than expected by chance and more often to the empty box than the cooperative partner. These results show that dogs distinguished between the cooperative and the competitive partner, and indicate the flexibility of dogs to adjust their behaviour and that they are able to use tactical deception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne T E Heberlein
- Animal Behaviour, Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Marta B Manser
- Animal Behaviour, Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Dennis C Turner
- Animal Behaviour, Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland.,I.E.T./I.E.A.P., Horgen, Switzerland
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Mitchell RW. A critique and empirical assessment of Alexandra Horowitz and Julie Hecht’s “Examining dog–human play: the characteristics, affect, and vocalizations of a unique interspecific interaction”. Anim Cogn 2017; 20:553-565. [DOI: 10.1007/s10071-017-1075-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2016] [Revised: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Gácsi M, Vas J, Topál J, Miklósi Á. Wolves do not join the dance: Sophisticated aggression control by adjusting to human social signals in dogs. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2013.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Abstract
Deception is presented as a "design to defeat a design" (Thompson 1986, p 64) where one actor purposefully changes the environment with the intention on generating a less adaptive response from another actor. The shared context combined with the indeterminacy of meanings makes deception not only possible, but also an important strategy for adaptation. In this regard not all deception temporarily causes individuals to reorganize their meaning making hierarchy around the changes made by the other party. Different uses of deceptions are explored with regards to adolescent sexual conduct, as their complex and quickly changing representations necessitate social recognition and adaptation.
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Horváth Z, Dóka A, Miklósi A. Affiliative and disciplinary behavior of human handlers during play with their dog affects cortisol concentrations in opposite directions. Horm Behav 2008; 54:107-14. [PMID: 18353328 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2007] [Revised: 01/31/2008] [Accepted: 02/01/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
It has been shown that cortisol concentrations change characteristically in the course of agonistic interactions; our aim was to find out how a playful situation may affect concentrations of this hormone in the saliva. We studied dogs' behavior and the changes of cortisol concentrations in a play situation, where the dogs played with their handler for 3 min with a tug toy. In this experiment working dogs were divided into two groups by the type of their work, namely police dogs and border guard dogs. We found that the cortisol concentrations of old police dogs significantly increased, while the adult border guard dogs' hormone levels decreased, which shows that playing with the handler has an effect on both groups, but interestingly this effect was opposite. Behavior analysis showed differences only in the behavior of the human handlers during the play sessions, while the behavior analysis did not reveal significant differences in the two groups of dogs, except that old border guard dogs generally needed more time to begin playing than old police dogs. During the play sessions police officers were mainly disciplining their dogs, while the border guards were truly playing with them (including affiliative and affectionate behavior). Our results are in accordance with those of recent studies, which show that behaviors associated with control, authority or aggression increase cortisol concentrations, while play and affiliative behavior decrease cortisol levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsuzsánna Horváth
- Department of Ethology, Institute of Biology, Eötvös Loránd University Faculty of Science, Budapest, Hungary.
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Pika S, Zuberbühler K. Social games between bonobos and humans: evidence for shared intentionality? Am J Primatol 2008; 70:207-10. [PMID: 17894382 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.20469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Triadic social games are interesting from a cognitive perspective because they require a high degree of mutual social awareness. They consist of two agents incorporating an object in turn-taking sequences and require individuals to coordinate their attention to the task, the object, and to one another. Social games are observed commonly in domesticated dogs interacting with humans, but they have received only little empirical attention in nonhuman primates. Here, we report observations of bonobos (Pan paniscus) engaging in social games with a human playmate. Our behavioral analyses revealed that the bonobos behaved in many ways similar to human children during these games. They were interested in the joint activity, rather than the play objects themselves, and used communicative gestures to encourage reluctant partners to perform their role, suggesting rudimentary understanding of others' intentions. Our observations thus may imply that shared intentionality, the ability to understand and shares intention with other individuals, has emerged in the primate lineage before the origins of hominids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Pika
- School of Psychology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Scotland, United Kingdom.
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Ford EB. Lie detection: historical, neuropsychiatric and legal dimensions. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LAW AND PSYCHIATRY 2006; 29:159-77. [PMID: 16516294 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijlp.2005.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2004] [Revised: 05/26/2005] [Accepted: 07/30/2005] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Lying and deception are behaviors that have been studied and discussed extensively in the scientific, philosophical and legal communities for centuries. The purpose of this article is to provide a general overview of the literature and thinking to date about deception, followed by an analysis of the efficacy and evolution of lie detection techniques. The first part explores the definitions of lying, from animal behaviorists' perspectives to philosophical theories, along with demographics and research about the prevalence of lying and characteristics of those who lie. This is followed by a discussion of possible motivations for lying, moral arguments about the legitimacy of or prohibition against lying, and developmental theorists' explanations for the growth of a human being's capacity to lie. The first section provides an introduction for the second part, a historical and critical review of lie detection techniques. Early methods, such as phrenology and truth serums are contrasted with more modern-day approaches, such as polygraphy and functional MRIs. Conclusions are drawn about whether technology has really advanced the art of detecting deception. Finally, the article enters a discussion about the law's response to lie detection methods and to deception in general. United States landmark cases, at both the state and federal level, are critiqued with regard to their impact on the admissibility into court of lie detection methods as evidence. Just as the scientific community has been wary of embracing many of these methods, so has the legal community. Through a review of the legal, scientific and pseudo-scientific issues surrounding deception, a greater understanding is reached of the complexity of this universal and morally loaded behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth B Ford
- Bellevue Hospital Center, Department of Forensic Psychiatry, New York, New York, USA.
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Kerepesi A, Jonsson GK, Miklósi A, Topál J, Csányi V, Magnusson MS. Detection of temporal patterns in dog–human interaction. Behav Processes 2005; 70:69-79. [PMID: 15939552 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2005.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2004] [Revised: 04/22/2005] [Accepted: 04/30/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A new time structure model and pattern detection procedures developed by (Magnusson, M.S., 1996. Hidden real-time patterns in intra- and inter-individual behaviour description and detection. Eur. J. Psychol. Assess. 12, 112-123; Magnusson, M.S., 2000. Discovering hidden time patterns in behaviour: T-patterns and their detection. Behav. Res. Methods, Instrum. Comput. 32, 93-110) enables us to detect complex temporal patterns in behaviour. This method has been used successfully in studying human and neuronal interactions (Anolli, L., Duncan, S. Magnusson, M.S., Riva G. (Eds.), 2005. The Hidden Structure of Interaction, IOS Press, Amsterdam). We assume that similarly to interactions between humans, cooperative and communicative interaction between dogs and humans also consist of patterns in time. We coded and analyzed a cooperative situation when the owner instructs the dog to help build a tower and complete the task. In this situation, a cooperative interaction developed spontaneously, and occurrences of hidden time patterns in behaviour can be expected. We have found such complex temporal patterns (T-patterns) in each pair during the task that cannot be detected by "standard" behaviour analysis. During cooperative interactions the dogs' and humans' behaviour becomes organized into interactive temporal patterns and that dog-human interaction is much more regular than yet has been thought. We have found that communicative behaviour units and action units can be detected in the same T-pattern during cooperative interactions. Comparing the T-patterns detected in the dog-human dyads, we have found a typical sequence emerging during the task, which was the outline of the successfully completed task. Such temporal patterns were conspicuously missing from the "randomized data" that gives additional support to the claim that interactive T-patterns do not occur by chance or arbitrarily but play a functional role during the task.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Kerepesi
- Comparative Ethology Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary.
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Ducoing AM, Thierry B. Withholding information in semifree-ranging Tonkean macaques (Macaca tonkeana). J Comp Psychol 2003; 117:67-75. [PMID: 12735366 DOI: 10.1037/0735-7036.117.1.67] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The ability of Tonkean macaques (Macaca tonkeana) to deceive partner about the location of hidden food was investigated in 4 males belonging to a group raised in a 2-acre park. Before releasing subjects in the search task, the experimenter prompted 1 of the subjects to observe where the bait was hidden. The authors found that when informed, higher ranking subjects did not significantly alter their search patterns whether tested alone or in pairs. The same held for subordinates belonging to pairs with weak dominance asymmetry. To the contrary, strongly dominated subordinates modified the number of pauses when searching in pairs. They used behavioral tactics such as avoiding being followed, stopping when being watched, or taking a wrong direction. Information withholding might be acommon event in macaques.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Ducoing
- Equipe d'Ethologie et Ecologie Comportementale des Primates, Centre d'Ecologie et Physiologie Energétiques, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Strasbourg, France
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Koda N. Development of play behavior between potential guide dogs for the blind and human raisers. Behav Processes 2001; 53:41-46. [PMID: 11254990 DOI: 10.1016/s0376-6357(00)00146-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This study shows longitudinal development of human-dog interactions in a guide dog raising program. Social play interactions between potential guide dogs for the blind (puppies) and their adult female raisers (PWs) were videotaped at home during the period from two months to 11 or 12 months of the puppies' age. The puppies and PWs established close proximity relationships by two to three months of age. The older the puppies became, the shorter time the puppies and PWs spent in intensive fighting and chasing play. The older the puppies became, the longer the puppies and PWs spent in waiting, seeking and possessing together play which needed the puppies' self-control, concentration and ability to cooperate with the PWs. Whether or not these behavioral tendencies which the puppies showed were appropriate for guide dog candidates is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Koda
- Department of Ethology, Graduate School of Human Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
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