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Caddick ZA, Fraundorf SH, Rottman BM, Nokes-Malach TJ. Cognitive perspectives on maintaining physicians' medical expertise: II. Acquiring, maintaining, and updating cognitive skills. Cogn Res Princ Implic 2023; 8:47. [PMID: 37488460 PMCID: PMC10366061 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-023-00497-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the course of training, physicians develop significant knowledge and expertise. We review dual-process theory, the dominant theory in explaining medical decision making: physicians use both heuristics from accumulated experience (System 1) and logical deduction (System 2). We then discuss how the accumulation of System 1 clinical experience can have both positive effects (e.g., quick and accurate pattern recognition) and negative ones (e.g., gaps and biases in knowledge from physicians' idiosyncratic clinical experience). These idiosyncrasies, biases, and knowledge gaps indicate a need for individuals to engage in appropriate training and study to keep these cognitive skills current lest they decline over time. Indeed, we review converging evidence that physicians further out from training tend to perform worse on tests of medical knowledge and provide poorer patient care. This may reflect a variety of factors, such as specialization of a physician's practice, but is likely to stem at least in part from cognitive factors. Acquired knowledge or skills gained may not always be readily accessible to physicians for a number of reasons, including an absence of study, cognitive changes with age, and the presence of other similar knowledge or skills that compete in what is brought to mind. Lastly, we discuss the cognitive challenges of keeping up with standards of care that continuously evolve over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary A Caddick
- Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, 3420 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Scott H Fraundorf
- Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, 3420 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA.
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
| | - Benjamin M Rottman
- Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, 3420 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Timothy J Nokes-Malach
- Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, 3420 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Guan CQ, Meng W, Morett LM, Fraundorf SH. Mapping Pitch Accents to Memory Representations in Spoken Discourse Among Chinese Learners of English: Effects of L2 Proficiency and Working Memory. Front Psychol 2022; 13:870152. [PMID: 35664143 PMCID: PMC9161639 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.870152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined L2 learners' interpretation of pitch accent cues in discourse memory and how these effects vary with proficiency and working memory (WM). One hundred sixty-eight L1-Chinese participants learning L2-English listened to recorded discourses containing pairs of contrastive alternatives and then took a later recognition memory test. Their language proficiency and WM were measured through standard tests and the participants were categorized into low, medium, advanced, and high advanced language proficiency groups. We analyzed recognition memory task performance using signal detection theory to tease apart response bias (an overall tendency to affirm memory probes) from sensitivity (the ability to discern whether a specific probe statement is true). The results showed a benefit of contrastive L + H* pitch accents in rejecting probes referring to items unmentioned in a discourse, but not contrastive alternatives themselves. More proficient participants also showed more accurate memory for the discourses overall, as well as a reduced overall bias to affirm the presented statements as true. Meanwhile, that the benefit of L + H* accents in rejecting either contrast probes or unmentioned probes was modulated for people with greater working memory. Participants with higher WM were quite sure that it did not exist in the memory trace as this part of discourse wasn't mentioned. The results support a contrast-uncertainty hypothesis, in which comprehenders recall the contrast set but fail to distinguish which is the correct item. Further, these effects were influenced by proficiency and by working memory, suggesting they reflect incomplete mapping between pitch accent and discourse representation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connie Qun Guan
- School of Foreign Studies, Beijing Language and Culture University, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Wanjin Meng
- China National Institute of Education Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Laura M. Morett
- Department of Educational Studies in Psychology, Research Methodology, and Counseling, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, United States
| | - Scott H. Fraundorf
- Department of Psychology and Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
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de Simone J, Cevasco J. The Role of the Establishment of Causal Connections and the Modality of Presentation of Discourse in the Generation of Emotion Inferences by Argentine College Students. READING PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/02702711.2020.1837314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jazmín Cevasco
- Department of Psychology, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- National Research and Technical Research Council, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Listeners consider alternative speaker productions in discourse comprehension and memory: Evidence from beat gesture and pitch accenting. Mem Cognit 2019; 47:1515-1530. [DOI: 10.3758/s13421-019-00945-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Ito K, Martens MA. Contrast-marking prosodic emphasis in Williams syndrome: results of detailed phonetic analysis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE & COMMUNICATION DISORDERS 2017; 52:46-58. [PMID: 27113718 DOI: 10.1111/1460-6984.12250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Revised: 01/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/13/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Past reports on the speech production of individuals with Williams syndrome (WS) suggest that their prosody is anomalous and may lead to challenges in spoken communication. While existing prosodic assessments confirm that individuals with WS fail to use prosodic emphasis to express contrast, those reports typically lack detailed phonetic analysis of speech data. The present study examines the acoustic properties of speech prosody, aiming for the future development of targeted speech interventions. AIMS The study examines the three primary acoustic correlates of prosodic emphasis (duration, intensity, F0) and determines whether individuals with WS have difficulty in producing all or a particular set of the three prosodic cues. METHODS & PROCEDURES Speech produced by 12 individuals with WS and 12 chronological age (CA)-matched typically developing individuals were recorded. A sequential picture-naming task elicited production of target phrases in three contexts: (1) no contrast: gorilla with a racket → rabbit with a balloon; (2) contrast on the animal: fox with a balloon → rabbit with a balloon; and (3) contrast on the object: rabbit with a ball → rabbit with a balloon. The three acoustic correlates of prosodic prominence (duration, intensity and F0) were compared across the three referential contexts. OUTCOMES & RESULTS The two groups exhibited striking similarities in their use of word duration and intensity for expressing contrast. Both groups showed the reduction and enhancement of final lengthening, and the enhancement and reduction of intensity difference for the animal contrast and for the object contrast conditions, respectively. The two groups differed in their use of F0: the CA group produced higher F0 for the animal than for the object regardless of the context, and this difference was enhanced when the animal noun was contrastive. In contrast, the WS group produced higher F0 for the object than for the animal when the object was contrastive. CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS The present data contradict previous assessment results that report a lack of prosodic skills to mark contrast in individuals with WS. The methodological differences that may account for this variability are discussed. The present data suggest that individuals with WS produce appropriate prosodic cues to express contrast, although their use of pitch may be somewhat atypical. Additional data and future speech comprehension studies will determine whether pitch modulation can be targeted for speech intervention in individuals with WS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiwako Ito
- Ohio State University, Department of Linguistics; 1961 Tuttle Park Place, Ohio Stadium East 108A, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Marilee A Martens
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University at Newark, 1179 University Dr, Newark, OH 43055
- Nisonger Center, The Ohio State University, 1581 Dodd Dr, Columbus, OH 43210
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Abstract
What role do contrastive accents play in children's discourse comprehension? By 6 years of age, children use contrastive accents during online comprehension to predict upcoming referents (Ito et al., 2014; Sekerina & Trueswell, 2012). But, at this age, children's performance on offline tasks of accent comprehension is poor (e.g., Wells et al., 2004). To examine whether the asymmetry could reflect a developmental stage in which the processing system uses contrastive accents to make local predictions, but fails to incorporate this information into discourse representations, we tested the effect of contrastive accents on children's memory of the content of a discourse. Five-year-olds heard 12 different stories consecutively, one after another, and the critical words were manipulated so that they were produced either with a contrastive L+H* accent or with a presentational H* accent. We found that children remembered facts about the contrast set better when the target word had an appropriate contrastive accent earlier than when it had a presentational accent. The results show that by 5 years, children are able to use contrastive accents for encoding a discourse, as well as for making local predictions during online comprehension.
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Franke M, Degen J. Reasoning in Reference Games: Individual- vs. Population-Level Probabilistic Modeling. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0154854. [PMID: 27149675 PMCID: PMC4858259 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0154854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in probabilistic pragmatics have achieved considerable success in modeling speakers’ and listeners’ pragmatic reasoning as probabilistic inference. However, these models are usually applied to population-level data, and so implicitly suggest a homogeneous population without individual differences. Here we investigate potential individual differences in Theory-of-Mind related depth of pragmatic reasoning in so-called reference games that require drawing ad hoc Quantity implicatures of varying complexity. We show by Bayesian model comparison that a model that assumes a heterogenous population is a better predictor of our data, especially for comprehension. We discuss the implications for the treatment of individual differences in probabilistic models of language use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Franke
- Department of Linguistics, University of Tübingen, Wilhelmstrasse 19, 72072 Tübingen, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Judith Degen
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA 94305, United States of America
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Fraundorf SH, Watson DG, Benjamin AS. Reduction in Prosodic Prominence Predicts Speakers' Recall: Implications for Theories of Prosody. LANGUAGE, COGNITION AND NEUROSCIENCE 2015; 30:606-619. [PMID: 26594647 PMCID: PMC4652584 DOI: 10.1080/23273798.2014.966122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Repeated words are often reduced in prosodic prominence, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. The present study contrasted two theories: does prosodic reduction reflect the choice of a particular linguistic form, or does ease of retrieval within the language production system lead to facilitated, less prominent productions? One test of facilitation-based theories is suggested by findings on human memory: Whether a second presentation of an item benefits later memory is predicted by the item's availability at the time of the second presentation. If prosodic reduction partially reflects facilitated retrieval, it should predict later memory. One naïve participant described to another participant routes on a map. Critical items were mentioned twice. Following the map task, the speaker attempted written recall of the mentioned items. As expected, acoustic intensity of the second mentions predicted later recall in the same way that difficulty of retrieval has in other tasks. This pattern suggests that one source of prosodic reduction is facilitation within the language production system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott H Fraundorf
- University of Pittsburgh, 608 Learning Research and Development Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15260. Telephone: +1 (412) 624-7029.
| | - Duane G Watson
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 603 E Daniel St., Champaign, IL, 61820. Telephone: +1 (217) 333-0280.
| | - Aaron S Benjamin
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 603 E Daniel St., Champaign, IL, 61820. Telephone: +1 (217) 333-6822.
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Stine-Morrow EAL. Commentary on Mata and von Helversen: Foraging Theory as a Paradigm Shift for Cognitive Aging. Top Cogn Sci 2015; 7:535-42. [PMID: 25994491 DOI: 10.1111/tops.12149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2014] [Accepted: 09/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Mata and von Helversen's integrative review of adult age differences in search performance makes a good case that cognitive control may impact certain aspects of self-regulation of search. However, information foraging as a framework also offers an avenue to consider how adults of different ages adapt to age-related changes in cognition, such as in cognitive control.
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Fraundorf SH, Benjamin AS, Watson DG. What happened (and what didn't): Discourse constraints on encoding of plausible alternatives. JOURNAL OF MEMORY AND LANGUAGE 2013; 69:196-227. [PMID: 24014934 PMCID: PMC3763865 DOI: 10.1016/j.jml.2013.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Three experiments investigated how font emphasis influences reading and remembering discourse. Although past work suggests that contrastive pitch contours benefit memory by promoting encoding of salient alternatives, it is unclear both whether this effect generalizes to other forms of linguistic prominence and how the set of alternatives is constrained. Participants read discourses in which some true propositions had salient alternatives (e.g., British scientists found the endangered monkey when the discourse also mentioned French scientists) and completed a recognition memory test. In Experiments 1 and 2, font emphasis in the initial presentation increased participants' ability to later reject false statements about salient alternatives but not about unmentioned items (e.g., Portuguese scientists). In Experiment 3, font emphasis helped reject false statements about plausible alternatives, but not about less plausible alternatives that were nevertheless established in the discourse. These results suggest readers encode a narrow set of only those alternatives plausible in the particular discourse. They also indicate that multiple manipulations of linguistic prominence, not just prosody, can lead to consideration of alternatives.
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Matzen LE, Benjamin AS. Older and wiser: older adults' episodic word memory benefits from sentence study contexts. Psychol Aging 2013; 28:754-67. [PMID: 23834493 DOI: 10.1037/a0032945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
A hallmark of adaptive cognition is the ability to modulate learning in response to the demands posed by different types of tests and different types of materials. Here we evaluate how older adults process out-of-context words and sentences differently by examining patterns of memory errors. In two experiments, we explored younger and older adults' sensitivity to lures on a recognition test following study of words in these two types of contexts. Among the studied words were compound words such as "blackmail" and "jailbird" that were related to conjunction lures (e.g., "blackbird") and semantic lures (e.g., "criminal"). Participants engaged in a recognition test that included old items, conjunction lures, semantic lures, and unrelated new items. In both experiments, younger and older adults had the same general pattern of memory errors: more incorrect endorsements of semantic than conjunction lures following sentence study and more incorrect endorsements of conjunction than semantic lures following list study. The similar pattern reveals that older and younger adults responded to the constraints of the two different study contexts in similar ways. However, although younger and older adults showed similar levels of memory performance for the list study context, the sentence study context elicited superior memory performance in the older participants. It appears as though memory tasks that take advantage of greater expertise in older adults--in this case, greater experience with sentence processing--can reveal superior memory performance in the elderly.
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