1
|
Huxhold O, Fiori KL. Understanding loneliness in late life. Curr Opin Psychol 2024; 57:101801. [PMID: 38428351 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2024.101801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
Loneliness in late adulthood is a public health issue. Thus, understanding the etiology of loneliness is of critical importance. Here, we conceptualize the development of loneliness in late life as dynamic interactions between individual and contextual processes. Specifically, we suggest that loneliness arises if the existing social relationships are unable to meet a set of social expectations. These expectations are fulfilled by three different layers of the social structure: 1) close confidants; 2) broader social networks; and 3) involvement in the community. Although older adults experience losses in their broader network and engage less in the community, they may avoid loneliness by focusing on close confidants. However, these adaptations may make it more difficult for older adults to overcome loneliness.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Huxhold
- German Centre of Gerontology, Manfred-von-Richthofen-Str 2, D-12101, Berlin, Germany.
| | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Schüttengruber V, Freund AM. The Role of Subjective Expectations for Exhaustion and Recovery: The Sample Case of Work and Leisure. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2023; 18:1009-1027. [PMID: 36469842 PMCID: PMC10475213 DOI: 10.1177/17456916221134529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
We propose a new model of exhaustion and recovery that posits that people evaluate an activity as exhausting or recovering on the basis of the subjective expectation about how exhausting or recovering activities related to a certain life domain are. To exemplify the model, we focus as a first step on the widely shared expectations that work is exhausting and leisure is recovering. We assume that the association of an activity related to a life domain associated with exhaustion (e.g., work) leads people to monitor their experiences and selectively attend to signs of exhaustion; in contrast, while pursuing an activity related to a life domain associated with recovery (e.g., leisure), people preferentially process signs of recovery. We further posit that the preferential processing of signs of exhaustion (vs. recovery) leads to experiencing more exhaustion when pursuing activities expected to be exhausting (e.g., work activities) and more recovery when pursuing activities expected to be recovering (e.g., leisure activities). This motivational process model of exhaustion and recovery provides new testable hypotheses that differ from predictions derived from limited-resource models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Schüttengruber
- Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Switzerland
- Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research LIVES – Overcoming vulnerability: Life course perspectives, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Alexandra M. Freund
- Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Switzerland
- Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research LIVES – Overcoming vulnerability: Life course perspectives, Geneva, Switzerland
- University Research Priority Program Dynamics of Healthy Aging, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Luo M, Pauly T, Röcke C, Hülür G. Alternating time spent on social interactions and solitude in healthy older adults. Br J Psychol 2022; 113:987-1008. [PMID: 35957493 PMCID: PMC9804578 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Time spent on being with others (social interactions) and being alone (solitude) in day to day life might reflect older adults' agentic regulatory strategies to balance the needs to belong and to conserve energy. Motivated from a joint lifespan psychological and social relationship theoretical perspective, this study examined how time spent on social interactions and solitude alternatively unfolds within individuals in daily life, relating to individual differences in trait-level well-being and fatigue. Over 21 days, a total of 11,172 valid records of social interactions were collected from 118 older adults (aged 65-94 years) in a smartphone-based event-contingent ambulatory assessment study in Switzerland. On average, a social interaction episode lasted 39 min and a solitude episode lasted 5.03 hr. Multilevel models showed that, at the within-person level, a longer-than-usual social interaction preceded and was followed by a longer-than-usual solitude episode. Moderator analyses showed that older adults with higher trait life satisfaction and lower trait fatigue spent even more time in social interactions after longer solitude episodes, amplifying the solitude-then-interaction association. Our findings suggest that whereas social interaction is a means to improve well-being, solitude is also an integral part in older adults' daily life supporting energy recovery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Minxia Luo
- University Research Priority Program (URPP) Dynamics of Healthy AgingUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Theresa Pauly
- University Research Priority Program (URPP) Dynamics of Healthy AgingUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Christina Röcke
- University Research Priority Program (URPP) Dynamics of Healthy AgingUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
- Center for GerontologyUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Gizem Hülür
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of BonnBonnGermany
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Cheval B, Boisgontier MP, Sieber S, Ihle A, Orsholits D, Forestier C, Sander D, Chalabaev A. Cognitive functions and physical activity in aging when energy is lacking. Eur J Ageing 2022; 19:533-544. [PMID: 36052203 PMCID: PMC9424387 DOI: 10.1007/s10433-021-00654-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Declines in subjective energy availability and cognitive functions could explain the decrease in physical activity observed across aging. However, how these factors interact remains unknown. Based on the theory of effort minimization in physical activity (TEMPA), we hypothesized that cognitive functions may help older adults to maintain physical activity even when energy availability is perceived as insufficient. This study used data of 104,590 adults from 21 European countries, from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), including 7 measurement occasions between 2004 and 2017. Cognitive functions were assessed with verbal fluency and delayed recall, using the verbal fluency test and the 10-word delayed recall test. Physical activity and subjective energy availability were self-reported. Results of linear mixed-effects models revealed that cognitive functions moderated the associations between subjective energy availability and physical activity. Moreover, as adults get older, cognitive functions became critical to engage in physical activity regardless the availability of perceived energy. Sensitivity and robustness analyses were consistent with the main results. These results suggest that cognitive functions may help older adults to maintain regular physical activity even when energy for goal pursuit becomes insufficient, but that the protective role of cognitive functions becomes critical at older age, irrespective of the state of perceived energy. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10433-021-00654-2.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Boris Cheval
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Laboratory for the Study of Emotion Elicitation and Expression (E3Lab), Department of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Matthieu P. Boisgontier
- School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
- Bruyère Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Stefan Sieber
- LIVES Centre, Swiss Centre of Expertise in Life Course Research, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Ihle
- Swiss NCCR “LIVES - Overcoming Vulnerability: Life Course Perspectives”, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Gerontology and Vulnerability, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Cognitive Aging Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Dan Orsholits
- Swiss NCCR “LIVES - Overcoming Vulnerability: Life Course Perspectives”, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Cyril Forestier
- Laboratoire Motricité, Interactions, Performance, MIP - EA4334, Le Mans Université, Le Mans, France
| | - David Sander
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Laboratory for the Study of Emotion Elicitation and Expression (E3Lab), Department of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Wilton-Harding B, Weber N, Windsor TD. Awareness of age-related gains and losses as moderators of daily stress reactivity in middle- and older-adulthood. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:929657. [PMID: 36090357 PMCID: PMC9458888 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.929657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives Associations between awareness of one's own aging and wellbeing have received increasing attention in the field of gerontology over the last decade. The current study examines how between-person differences and within-person fluctuations of awareness of age-related change (AARC) relate to daily negative affect and vitality. Of key interest was the extent to which fluctuations in AARC moderated reactivity to stressor exposure. We predicted that higher positive perceptions of aging (AARC-gains) would buffer the relationship between daily stressors and negative affect/vitality. Conversely, we expected that higher negative perceptions (AARC-losses) may exacerbate the relationship between daily stressors and the outcome variables. Methods Data were collected from a community-based sample of 152 Australian adults aged 53-86 (M = 69.18, SD = 5.73). For 10 consecutive days, participants completed surveys on their smartphones measuring daily stressors, AARC, and affect (positive and negative). Bayesian hierarchical linear models were used to examine whether AARC-gains and AARC-losses moderated within-person associations of daily stressors and affect (i.e., stress reactivity). Results At the between-person level, higher AARC-gains was associated with lower negative affect and higher vitality, whereas those reporting higher AARC-losses scored higher on negative affect and lower on vitality. Within-person variables revealed that on days when AARC-gains was higher and AARC-losses was lower, this corresponded with lower negative affect and higher vitality. There was no evidence in support of individual moderating effects of within-person AARC-losses or within-person AARC-gains on stress reactivity. A trend was evident in support of a three-way WP Stress severity × WP AARC-gains × WP AARC-losses interaction in the prediction of negative affect, indicating that on days when AARC-losses was higher, the association of stress severity with negative affect was weaker if AARC-gains was higher. Follow-up analyses modeling quadratic stress severity revealed a trend suggesting an interaction of within-person stress severity and within-person AARC-losses. Discussion Results indicate that both individual differences and short-term fluctuations in AARC are associated with daily negative affect and vitality. The results provided qualified support for a possible protective role of AARC-gains in the context of stress reactivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Nathan Weber
- College of Education, Psychology and Social Work, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Tim D. Windsor
- College of Education, Psychology and Social Work, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Huxhold O, Fiori KL, Windsor T. Rethinking Social Relationships in Adulthood: The Differential Investment of Resources Model. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2022; 26:57-82. [PMID: 35001730 PMCID: PMC8978474 DOI: 10.1177/10888683211067035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Empirical evidence about the development of social relationships across
adulthood into late life continues to accumulate, but theoretical
development has lagged behind. The Differential Investment of
Resources (DIRe) model integrates these empirical advances. The model
defines the investment of time and energy into social ties varying in
terms of emotional closeness and kinship as the core mechanism
explaining the formation and maintenance of social networks.
Individual characteristics, acting as capacities, motivations, and
skills, determine the amount, direction, and efficacy of the
investment. The context (e.g., the living situation) affects the
social opportunity structure, the amount of time and energy available,
and individual characteristics. Finally, the model describes two
feedback loops: (a) social capital affecting the individual’s living
situation and (b) different types of ties impacting individual
characteristics via social exchanges, social influences, and social
evaluations. The proposed model will provide a theoretical basis for
future research and hypothesis testing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Tim Windsor
- Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Butterworth JW, Finley AJ, Baldwin CL, Kelley NJ. Self-control mediates age-related differences in psychological distress. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2021.111137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
|
8
|
Hess TM, Freund AM, Tobler PN. Effort Mobilization and Healthy Aging. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2021; 76:S135-S144. [PMID: 34515772 DOI: 10.1093/geronb/gbab030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Healthy aging is in part dependent upon people's willingness and ability to mobilize the effort necessary to support behaviors that promote health and well-being. People may have the best information relating to health along with the best intentions to stay healthy (e.g., health-related goals), but positive outcomes will ultimately be dependent upon them actually investing the necessary effort toward using this information to achieve their goals. In addition, the influences on effort mobilization may vary as a function of physical, psychological, and social changes experienced by the individual across the life span. Building on the overall theme of this special issue, we explore the relationships between motivation, effort mobilization, and healthy aging. We begin by characterizing the relationship between motivation and effort, and identify the factors that influence effort mobilization. We then consider the factors associated specifically with aging that may influence effort mobilization (e.g., changes in cardiovascular and neural mechanisms) and, ultimately, the health and well-being of older adults. Finally, distinguishing between those influential factors that are modifiable versus intractable, we identify ways to structure situations and beliefs to optimize mobilization in support of healthy aging.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M Hess
- Department of Psychology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, USA
| | - Alexandra M Freund
- Department of Psychology and University Research Priority Program "Dynamics of Healthy Aging," University of Zurich, Switzerland.,National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) LIVES, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Wang X, Janiszewski C, Zheng Y, Laran J, Jang WE. Deriving Mental Energy From Task Completion. Front Psychol 2021; 12:717414. [PMID: 34489821 PMCID: PMC8418126 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.717414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Many tasks in everyday life (e.g., making an accurate decision, completing job tasks, and searching for product information) are extrinsically motivated (i.e., the task is performed to gain a benefit) and require mental effort. Prior research shows that the cognitive resources needed to perform an extrinsically motivated task are allocated pre-task. The pre-task allocation of mental resources tends to be conservative, because mental effort is costly. Consequently, there are mental energy deficits when the use of mental resources exceeds the allocated amount. This research provides evidence for post-task mental energy replenishment. The amount of resource replenishment is a function of the size of the mental energy deficit and the favorability of the cost-benefit trade-off experienced at the completion of the task (i.e., the value of the reward given the energy investment). The findings have implications for how cognitive resources management influences the availability of mental energy on a moment-to-moment basis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Wang
- Warrington College of Business, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Chris Janiszewski
- Warrington College of Business, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Yanmei Zheng
- Shidler College of Business, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, United States
| | - Juliano Laran
- Faculty of Business and Economics, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Wonseok Eric Jang
- College of Sports Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, South Korea
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Wilton-Harding BR, Windsor TD. Awareness of age-related gains and losses and their associations with psychological well-being: A longitudinal examination. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2021; 77:661-672. [PMID: 34411232 DOI: 10.1093/geronb/gbab155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES How people experience their own aging is more strongly linked to well-being than chronological age. This study examined associations of awareness of age-related change (AARC) with between-person differences and longitudinal changes in psychological well-being (PWB). We expected that higher AARC-gains would be associated with higher PWB and increases in PWB over time. Conversely, we expected higher AARC-losses would be associated with lower PWB, and steeper decline in PWB over time. Furthermore, we tested the interaction of AARC-gains and AARC-losses to examine whether negative associations between AARC-losses and PWB would be weaker among those reporting higher AARC-gains. METHOD Data were collected in three waves from a 12-month longitudinal study of 408 community-dwelling older adults (aged 60+). Multilevel growth models were used to analyze associations between AARC and a composite measure of PWB which included key components of PWB identified in self-determination theory (satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs), as well as vitality, and life engagement. RESULTS At the between-person level, higher AARC-gains and lower AARC-losses were consistently associated with higher PWB. Furthermore, associations between AARC-losses and lower PWB were weaker among those with higher AARC-gains. There was no evidence to suggest the interplay of AARC-gains and AARC-losses had implications for change in PWB over time. DISCUSSION Appreciation of age-related gains may buffer the impact of AARC-losses on PWB. However, longitudinal studies conducted over varying macro- and micro-time scales are needed to better understand the developmental significance of AARC for later life.
Collapse
|
11
|
Sleep architecture, obstructive sleep apnea and functional outcomes in adults with a history of Tick-borne encephalitis. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0246767. [PMID: 33556106 PMCID: PMC7870069 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0246767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a widespread viral infection of the central nervous system with increasing incidence in Europe and northern Asia. Post-infectious sequelae are frequent, and patients with TBE commonly experience long-term fatigue and subjective sleep disturbances. Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) may be a contributing factor, and objective sleep studies with polysomnography (PSG) are lacking. Forty-two adults, 22 TBE patients (cases), diagnosed in Region Västra Götaland, Sweden, between 2012 and 2015, and 20 controls without a known TBE history, underwent an overnight PSG, respectively. All participants responded to questionnaires. The cases and controls were similar regarding age, sex, obesity, concomitant diseases, smoking, and alcohol habits. Despite similar PSG characteristics such as total sleep time and OSA severity indices, the TBE cases reported statistically more sleep-related functional impairment on the Functional Outcome of Sleep Questionnaire (FOSQ) compared with the controls (median scores 18.1 vs. 19.9; p<0.05). In a multivariate analysis, TBE correlated significantly with the lower FOSQ scores (unstandardized β -1.80 [%95 confidence interval -3.02 - -0.58]; p = 0.005) independent of age, sex, total sleep time and apnea-hypopnea-index. TBE cases with OSA reported the lowest scores on the FOSQ compared with the other subgroups with TBE or OSA alone, and the ones with neither TBE nor OSA. TBE is associated with impaired functional outcomes, in which concomitant OSA may worsen the subjective symptoms. Further studies are warranted to determine the effect of treatment of concomitant OSA on functional outcomes with regard to optimal rehabilitation of TBE.
Collapse
|
12
|
Hess TM, Knight RC. Adult Age Differences in the Effects of Chronic Mental Fatigue on Task-Related Fatigue, Appraisals, and Performance. MOTIVATION SCIENCE 2021; 7:122-132. [PMID: 34337104 DOI: 10.1037/mot0000216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Engagement in potentially beneficial activities is assumed to be based partially on perceived costs and benefits. Mental fatigue may be one factor that affects perceived costs. We examined age differences in both chronic and situational mental fatigue, and their relation to task perceptions and engagement levels. Younger (M age = 32.6) and older (M age = 73.1) adults completed questionnaires measuring subjective mental fatigue, physical and mental health, and motivational states, along with several assessments of cognitive ability. In addition, assessments of effort expenditure (systolic blood pressure) and task difficulty were collected during performance of a cognitively demanding memory-scan task. Two components of chronic mental fatigue (CMF) relating to affect and motivation were identified. Although the structure of CMF did not vary with age, CMF was differentially predictive of engagement and appraisal levels across groups. As CMF-Affect levels increased, older adults' task-difficulty appraisals increased more than those of younger adults. In addition, CMF-Affect was positively associated with levels of engagement in the young, but negatively associated in the old as memory load increased. Older adults also exhibited higher levels of situational fatigue than did the young, as evidenced by increased levels of effort expenditure as both time on task and objective demands increased. However, little relationship existed between chronic and situational mental fatigue in either age group. These findings suggest that the affective aspect of CMF is particularly consequential in older adults, with both task appraisals and engagement levels being negatively affected when fatigue is high.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M Hess
- Department of Psychology, North Carolina State University
| | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Cardini BB, Freund AM. Recovery from accumulated strain: the role of daily mood and opportunity costs during a vacation. Psychol Health 2020; 36:913-933. [PMID: 32815733 DOI: 10.1080/08870446.2020.1809661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Recovery from strains accumulated over longer periods of time is essential for health and well-being. Most people take vacations to ensure that they achieve a state of recovery that will allow them to prevent a state of enduring exhaustion. Extending a recent motivational model of recovery, we examined recovery processes during a vacation. DESIGN In the current daily diary study, 147 university students reported their daily recovery, mood, opportunity costs, and subjective time perception over 21 consecutive days (2342 observations) during the summer break. RESULTS Multilevel analyses showed that students reported higher recovery on days when they were in a better mood and perceived lower opportunity costs than usual. These results held after controlling for the passage of time and well-established covariates of recovery (i.e., psychological detachment, relaxation, mastery, and control). CONCLUSION Supporting the motivational model of recovery, positive mood, the absence of opportunity costs and, to a lesser degree, the perception of time passing quickly contribute to daily recovery during a vacation. Thus, recovery is not simply the result of elapsed time but also depends on the kinds of experiences people have on a given vacation day.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian B Cardini
- Department of Psychology and University Research Priority Program "Dynamics of Healthy Aging", University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alexandra M Freund
- Department of Psychology and University Research Priority Program "Dynamics of Healthy Aging", University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|