Does Anxiety Systematically Bias Estimates of Executive Functioning Deficits in Pediatric Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder?

Growing evidence suggests that childhood ADHD is associated with larger impairments in working memory relative to inhibition. However, most studies have not considered the role of co-occurring anxiety on these estimates - a potentially significant confound given prior evidence that anxiety may increase working memory difficulties but decrease inhibition difficulties for these children. The current study extends prior work to examine the extent to which co-occurring anxiety may be systematically affecting recent estimates of the magnitude of working memory/inhibitory control deficits in ADHD. The carefully-phenotyped sample included 197 children with ADHD and 142 children without ADHD between the ages of 8 and 13 years (N = 339; Mage = 10.31, SD = 1.39; 144 female participants). Results demonstrated that ADHD diagnosis predicted small impairments in inhibitory control (d = 0.31) and large impairments in working memory (d = 0.99). However, child trait anxiety assessed dimensionally across multiple informants (child, parent, teacher) did not uniquely predict either executive function, nor did it moderate estimates of ADHD-related working memory/inhibition deficits. When evaluating anxiety categorically and controlling for ADHD, anxiety diagnosis predicted slightly better working memory (d = 0.19) but not inhibitory control for clinically evaluated children generally. Findings from the current study indicate that trait anxiety, measured dimensionally or categorically, does not differentially affect estimates of executive dysfunction in pediatric ADHD. Further, results suggest that trait anxiety is generally not associated with executive dysfunction above and beyond the impact of co-occurring ADHD. Future research is needed to further assess the role of anxiety in ADHD behavioral symptomatology, neurocognitive functioning, and mechanisms underlying these relations.

Measurement Invariance of the WISC-V across a Clinical Sample of Children and Adolescents with ADHD and a Matched Control Group

Measurement invariance of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition (WISC-V) 10-primary subtest battery was analyzed across a group of children and adolescents with ADHD (n = 91) and a control group (n = 91) matched by sex, age, migration background, and parental education or type of school. First, confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were performed to establish the model fit for the WISC-V second-order five-factor model in each group. A sufficiently good fit of the model was found for the data in both groups. Subsequently, multigroup confirmatory factor analyses (MGCFAs) were conducted to test for measurement invariance across the ADHD and control group. Results of these analyses indicated configural and metric invariance but did not support full scalar invariance. However, after relaxing equality constraints on the Vocabulary (VC), Digit Span (DS), Coding (CD), Symbol Search (SS), and Picture Span (PS) subtest intercepts as well as on the intercepts of the first-order factors Working Memory (WM) and Processing Speed (PS), partial scalar invariance could be obtained. Furthermore, model-based reliability coefficients indicated that the WISC-V provides a more precise measurement of general intelligence (e.g., represented by the Full-Scale IQ, FSIQ) than it does for cognitive subdomains (e.g., represented by the WISC-V indexes). Group comparisons revealed that the ADHD group scored significantly lower than the control group on four primary subtests, thus achieving significantly lower scores on the corresponding primary indexes and the FSIQ. Given that measurement invariance across the ADHD and the control group could not be fully confirmed for the German WISC-V, clinical interpretations based on the WISC-V primary indexes are limited and should only be made with great caution regarding the cognitive profiles of children and adolescents with ADHD.

Longitudinal associations between paternal mental health and child behavior and cognition in middle childhood

Introduction

Paternal mental health has been associated with adverse consequences on offspring psychosocial development, and family environmental factors may partly explain those associations. To clarify this, we need comprehensive prospective studies, particularly in middle-childhood when the child enters school and is expected to make use of behavioral and cognitive skills as part of their interactions and learning.

Method

Using data from a sub-sample of the prospective 3D birth cohort study comprised of mother-father-child triads, and a follow-up of the parents and the children at 6-8 years of age (n = 61; 36 boys, 25 girls), we examined whether paternal anxious and depressive symptoms measured during the pregnancy period (i.e., prenatally) or concurrently when the child was assessed at 6-8 years old were associated with children's cognition/behavior.

Results

In contrast to our hypotheses, we found that greater prenatal paternal depressive symptoms predicted fewer child behavioral difficulties; and that greater concurrent childhood paternal depression or anxiety symptoms were associated with higher child full-scale IQ, controlling for the equivalent maternal mental health assessment and parental education. Father parenting perception did not mediate these associations, nor were they moderated by maternal mental health at the concurrent assessment, or paternal ratings of marital relationship quality.

Discussion

These findings suggest that higher symptoms of paternal mental health symptoms are associated with fewer child behavioral difficulties and higher cognitive performance in middle childhood. Potential clinical implications and future research directions are discussed.

WISC-V Measurement Invariance According to Sex and Age: Advancing the Understanding of Intergroup Differences in Cognitive Performance

This study sought to verify whether the constructs measured on the WISC-V are equivalent according to sex and age group in Chilean students to substantiate intergroup comparisons. For this, the measurement invariance of two variants of the five-factor intelligence model was explored with the ten primary subtests (hierarchical and oblique) using multigroup confirmatory factor analysis. Seven hundred and forty participants between 6 and 16 years of age from the Chilean standardization sample were assessed. The results show complete invariance according to sex, but incomplete according to the age group. The implications of these findings in both the professional area of psychology and future research are discussed.

A Psychometric Network Analysis of CHC Intelligence Measures: Implications for Research, Theory, and Interpretation of Broad CHC Scores "Beyond g"

For over a century, the structure of intelligence has been dominated by factor analytic methods that presume tests are indicators of latent entities (e.g., general intelligence or g). Recently, psychometric network methods and theories (e.g., process overlap theory; dynamic mutualism) have provided alternatives to g-centric factor models. However, few studies have investigated contemporary cognitive measures using network methods. We apply a Gaussian graphical network model to the age 9-19 standardization sample of the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Ability-Fourth Edition. Results support the primary broad abilities from the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory and suggest that the working memory-attentional control complex may be central to understanding a CHC network model of intelligence. Supplementary multidimensional scaling analyses indicate the existence of possible higher-order dimensions (PPIK; triadic theory; System I-II cognitive processing) as well as separate learning and retrieval aspects of long-term memory. Overall, the network approach offers a viable alternative to factor models with a g-centric bias (i.e., bifactor models) that have led to erroneous conclusions regarding the utility of broad CHC scores in test interpretation beyond the full-scale IQ, g.

The Validity of WISC-V Profiles of Strengths and Weaknesses

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V; Wechsler, 2014 ) provides a general intelligence score, representing g, and five index scores, reflecting underlying broad factors. Within person differences between the overall performance across subtests and index scores, denoted as index difference scores, are often used to examine profiles of strengths and weaknesses. In this study, the validity of such profiles was examined for the Dutch WISC-V. In line with previous studies, broad factors explained little variance in index scores. A simulation study showed that variation in index difference scores also reflected little broad factor variance. The simulation study further revealed that, as a consequence, a significant discrepancy between an index score and overall performance was accompanied in only 40%–74% of the cases by a discrepancy on the underlying broad factor. Overall, these results provide little support for the validity and thereby clinical use of WISC-V profiles.

Accounting for Intraindividual Profiles in the Wechsler Intelligence Scales Improves the Prediction of School Performance

IQ scores are often used to predict school performance. However, for children with learning disabilities, the predictive validity of IQ scores appears to be low. In the fourth and fifth versions of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (WISC), new ancillary indices were introduced. The General Ability Index (GAI) is a broad measure of fluid reasoning with verbal, visual-spatial, and figural test items. By contrast, the Cognitive Proficiency Index (CPI) combines different executive functions known to be frequently affected in children with dyslexia, ADHD, or combined learning disorders. To date, there is little evidence to demonstrate that these measures improve the prediction of school performance beyond the Full-scale IQ (FSIQ). We therefore used lasso regression to explore the predictive validity of these measures for school grades. The analyzed samples were taken from the German standardization samples of the WISC-IV and the WISC-V. In most cases, the prediction of school performance was not considerably improved by taking the GAI or the CPI into account. However, when the individual discrepancy between the CPI and the GAI was high, the FSIQ lost its predictive validity in elementary school. In this subgroup of children, reading and writing skills were best predicted by the CPI, whereas math skills were limited by the lowest score (i.e., the minimum out of the CPI and the GAI).

Assessing IQ in adolescents with mild to moderate cerebral palsy using the WISC-V

Objective: To examine the influence of subtests that require fine motor responses on measures of intellectual ability, and compare three approaches to minimizing motor demands while assessing cognitive abilities in adolescents with cerebral palsy (CP) to the traditional method of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Fifth edition (WISC-V). Method: Seventy adolescents with CP (M = 14 years 6 months, SD = 10 months) who were able to provide either a verbal or point response were assessed using the WISC-V administered via Q-interactive. The pencil-to-paper version of Coding was also administered. Performance on Block Design and pencil-to-paper Coding was compared to Visual Puzzles and Coding on Q-interactive, respectively. Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) scores derived according to the Traditional method of the WISC-V were compared to alternative estimates of FSIQ derived according to the Q-interactive, Nonmotor, and Motor-free methods, which minimized motor demands. Results: An additional 7-12% of participants were able to respond to Visual puzzles and Coding on Q-interactive compared to Block Design and pencil-to-paper Coding, respectively, and performance was marginally but significantly better. For 54 adolescents (Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) Level I-III) who were able to obtain FSIQ scores, the Traditional method underestimated FSIQ by 3-6 points compared to the alternative methods and the difference was most pronounced for those with more severe CP as measured by the GMFCS. Conclusion: Adolescents with CP are at an inherent disadvantage when cognitive ability is assessed using the Traditional method of the WISC-V. Findings suggest clinicians should employ the Nonmotor or Motor-free methods when assessing IQ in adolescents with CP.

The effect of transcranial direct current stimulation on cognitive performance in youth with persistent cognitive symptoms following concussion: a controlled pilot study

OBJECTIVE

Explore the feasibility, tolerability, and early efficacy of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) as a therapeutic intervention for youth with cognitive persistent post-concussion symptoms (PPCS).

HYPOTHESIS

tDCS improves performance on a dual task working memory (WM) paradigm in youth with cognitive PPCS.

PARTICIPANTS

Twelve youth experiencing cognitive PPCS.

DESIGN

A quasi-randomized pilot trial was used to explore the tolerability of, and performance differences on, a dual N-Back WM task paired with active or sham tDCS over 3 sessions.

MEASURES

Accuracy and reaction time on WM task and self-report of tDCS tolerability.

RESULTS

Trends toward increases in accuracy from Day 1 to 3 seen in both groups. Active tDCS group performed better than sham on Day 2 in N-Back level N2 (p = .019), and marginally better than the sham group on Day 3 in level N3 (p = .26). Participants reported tDCS as tolerable; compared to the active tDCS group, the sham group reported more "considerable" (p = .078) and "strong" symptoms (p = .097).

CONCLUSION

tDCS is a promising tool for enhancing WM performance and is a feasible and tolerable adjunct to behavioral interventions in youth with cognitive PPCS. A clinical trial to demonstrate efficacy is warranted.

Unique and overlapping contributions of sustained attention and working memory to parent and teacher ratings of inattentive behavior

Sustained attention and working memory are two closely intertwined executive functions that may underlie inattentive behavior. However, little research has teased apart their precise contributions in a single study. This study examines the extent to which ratings of children's inattentive behavior are associated with these executive functions. Specifically, we investigated the unique and overlapping statistical contributions of sustained attention capacity and working memory capacity to parent and teacher ratings of inattentive behavior (operationalized as scores on both the Inattentive and Hyperactive/Impulsive scales of the Conners' Rating Scale), while controlling for IQ. Children aged 8-11 years completed measures of sustained attention capacity, working memory capacity and IQ. Parents and teachers completed Conners-3 Parent and Teacher Short Forms, as a measure of inattentive behavior. We found that the unique statistical contribution of sustained attention capacity emerged as the most important factor in both parent and teacher ratings of inattentive behavior, with effects of moderate magnitude. In contrast, working memory capacity accounted for a small amount of variance. The overlap between sustained attention and working memory explained a small but substantive amount of variance in inattentive behavior. These findings support the idea that sustained attention and working memory are distinct executive functions that may contribute to goal-directed behavior both uniquely and through their interactions.

Factor structure of the new Scandinavian WISC-V version: Support for a five-factor model

The fifth version of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children is designed to measure five distinct aspects of intelligence, incorporating a new fluid reasoning index to the four indexes of the previous fourth version. Several factor analyses, however, have failed to support the fifth factor. The Scandinavian version is the only national version not showing clear superiority for the five-factor solution in the Manual. In the present study, we analyze WISC-V protocols from a clinical sample of 237 children tested with the new Scandinavian version. We perform six confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) testing three hierarchical-, two bifactor-, and one correlated candidate factor models. The study shows that the three-factor model does not fit the data, and that all four- and five-factor models showed good fit. The four-factor bifactor model was somewhat better than the five-bifactor and hierarchical models, but the correlated five-factor model was the superior model. Finding support for five-factors in a clinical sample representative of those most probable to be tested with the test, strengthen the claim that also the Scandinavian version measure a distinct fluid factor as intended by the test owners, and thus that clinicians may use the index scores as their main level of analysis. Review of previous CFAs show that the choice of statistical methods for CFA, bifactor or hierarchical/correlated, influence whether second order factor models are better than g-factor models.

Revisiting the Factor Structure of the German WISC-V for Clinical Interpretability: An Exploratory and Confirmatory Approach on the 10 Primary Subtests

With the exception of a recently published study and the analyses provided in the test manual, structural validity is mostly uninvestigated for the German version of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Fifth Edition (WISC-V). Therefore, the main aim of the present study was to examine the latent structure of the 10 WISC-V primary subtests on a bifurcated extended population-representative German standardization sample (N=1,646) by conducting both exploratory (EFA; n=823) and confirmatory (CFA; n=823) factor analyses on the original data. Since no more than one salient subtest loading could be found on the Fluid Reasoning (FR) factor in EFA, results indicated a four-factor rather than a five-factor model solution when the extraction of more than two suggested factors was forced. Likewise, a bifactor model with four group factors was found to be slightly superior in CFA. Variance estimation from both EFA and CFA revealed that the general factor dominantly accounted for most of the subtest variance and construct reliability estimates further supported interpretability of the Full Scale Intelligence Quotient (FSIQ). In both EFA and CFA, most group factors explained rather small proportions of common subtest variance and produced low construct replicability estimates, suggesting that the WISC-V primary indexes were of lower interpretive value and should be evaluated with caution. Clinical interpretation should thus be primarily based on the FSIQ and include a comprehensive analysis of the cognitive profile derived from the WISC-V primary indexes rather than analyses of each single primary index.

On the relations between HEXACO agreeableness (versus anger) and honesty-humility

The HEXACO personality factors of Agreeableness-versus-Anger (A) and Honesty-Humility (H) are interpreted as two complementary aspects of reciprocal altruistic tendency. Here we consider several ways of representing the positive associations between the defining traits of A and of H, through common factor analysis of self-report HEXACO Personality Inventory-Revised (HEXACO-PI-R) facet scale scores (N ≈ 111,000). We describe orthogonal solutions that differ in the extent to which H facets show secondary loadings on A (and vice versa), as well as an oblique solution compatible with a higher-order "cooperativeness" factor. We discuss the psychological plausibility of these solutions, and we review research showing differential associations of several phenomena or outcomes with A and H. We conclude that the optimal representation of A/H trait associations is not yet known but that the value of separate A and H factor scales is well established.

Vineland-3 Structural Validity and Interpretability of Domain Scores: Implications for Practitioners Assessing Adolescents With Developmental Conditions

The Vineland-3 purports to measure three dimensions of adaptive behavior, but empirical evidence pertaining to its structural validity is lacking. In this study, factor analyses were conducted on the standardization sample data for the comprehensive forms within the 11- to 20-year-old age range. Results did not support the three domain structure of the test and indicated domain scores did not add additional information about an individual's adaptive performance that was not already accounted for by the Adaptive Behavior Composite (ABC) score alone. Practitioners assessing adolescents with developmental conditions should consider using the ABC score within a multimethod assessment protocol for the various purposes of adaptive behavior assessment including the identification of intellectual disability.

Exploratory Factor Analyses of the French WISC-V (WISC-VFR) for Five Age Groups: Analyses Based on the Standardization Sample

This study investigated the factor structure of the French Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fifth Edition with five standardization sample age groups (6-7, 8-9, 10-11, 12-13, 14-16 years) using hierarchical exploratory factor analysis followed by Schmid–Leiman procedure. The primary research questions included (a) how many French Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fifth Edition factors should be extracted and retained in each age subgroup, (b) how are subtests associated with the latent factors, (c) was there evidence for the publisher’s claim of five first-order factors and separate Visual Spatial and Fluid Reasoning factors, (d) what proportion of variance was due to general intelligence versus the first-order group ability factors following a Schmid–Leiman procedure, and (e) do results support the age differentiation hypothesis? Results suggested that four factors might be sufficient for all five age groups and results did not support the distinction between Visual Spatial and Fluid Reasoning factors. While the general factor accounted for the largest portions of variance, the four first-order factors accounted for small unique portions of variance. Results did not support the age differentiation hypothesis because the number of factors remained the same across age groups, and there was no change in the percentage of variance accounted for by the general factor across age groups.

An independent examination of the equivalence of the standard and digital administration formats of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-5th Edition

A new administration format for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V; Wechsler, 2014) was introduced in 2016 on Q-interactive, Pearson's digital platform for test administration and scoring. The current study examined the measurement unit equivalence of the WISC-V standard and digital administration formats using counter-balanced administration of the 10 primary subtests to measure intellectual ability. The results indicated that correlations (r) between standard scores on subtests and composites administered in each format were generally moderate, with mean rs of 0.64 for subtests and 0.71 for composites after correction for attenuation, with the lowest rs for processing speed. Split-plot ANOVAs were conducted to examine within-subjects main effects for administration format and order and their interaction. The results of these analyses revealed significant main effects for format for the Full Scale IQ and Processing Speed composite scores, with small to medium effect sizes (ds > 0.40). These format effects largely stemmed from the non-equivalence of the Coding subtest, which is used to derive both composites. For Coding, the main effect for format was statistically significant, with a large effect size (d = 0.69). Statistically significant administration order by format interaction effects were also observed for a number of composites and subtests, with medium to large effect sizes (ƞ_ps² > 0.20). In each case, higher mean scores were observed when the WISC-V was administered first in digital format. Implications of these results for research and practice are discussed.

Muddled Measurement: A Historical Perspective on Questionable Practices in School Psychology’s Assessment of Learning Disabilities

As school psychologists we are well trained with using and interpreting a variety of psychometric instruments, yet there are several studies that indicate that school psychologist’s interpretive practices veer off the intended path. The application of assessment to the process of identification of specific learning disabilities (SLD) has been noted as one of the more problematic areas in psychoeducational assessment for myriad reasons. While the medical field has begun to focus on de-implementing ineffective practices, the field of psychology has not followed as readily. This article considers the costs of poor decision making in the context of SLD evaluation and seeks to identify evidence-based assessment practices for SLD identification and decision making. After considering historical perspectives, approaches and practices for assessing SLD, actuarial interpretation, and treatment validity will be discussed.

Validity of the WISC-V in Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Factor Structure and Measurement Invariance

Objective: Assessment of intellectual abilities in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a core component of a comprehensive diagnostic evaluation. However, relatively limited information is available regarding the validity of one of the most commonly-used measures of intelligence, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - 5th Edition (WISC-V) in ASD.Method: We investigated the factor structure and measurement invariance of the WISC-V in a sample of 349 children aged 6-16 diagnosed with ASD using single- and multi-group confirmatory factor analysis. The comparison group was the WISC-V standardization sample.Results: A four-index bifactor solution best fit the ASD group data. Measurement invariance analyses indicated support for configural and metric, but not scalar, invariance of the published 5-index structure, suggesting systematic differences in performance among some subscales in ASD. The 7-subtest FSIQ scale had partial scalar invariance after relaxing equality constraints on the Coding and Digit Span subtest intercepts, suggesting sources other than theorized IQ ability contribute to lower scores on these subtests within ASD. The Cognitive Proficiency Index (CPI) failed to demonstrate appropriate fit in baseline models. The General Ability Index (GAI) had full configural, metric, and scalar invariance.Conclusions: Statistical bias on the WISC-V within ASD in processing speed and working memory subtests creates significant limitations for the use of FSIQ and especially CPI index scores in ASD populations. The GAI showed strong measurement properties and should be considered as the preferred indicator of overall intellectual functioning when assessing children with ASD using the WISC-V.

Sex Differences in Intelligence in Children Aged 2:6–7:7: Analysis of the Factor Structure and Measurement Invariance of the German Wechsler Primary and Preschool Scale of Intelligence–Fourth Edition

The present study investigated gender differences in cognitive abilities for children aged 2–7 years on the German Wechsler Primary and Preschool Scale of Intelligence–Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV). WPPSI-IV data of 1,042 children (517 girls and 525 boys) were selected from the extended dataset of the German WPPSI-IV standardization sample. First of all, confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were used to verify the factor structure of the WPPSI-IV, which was proposed by the test developers. Then, multiple-group confirmatory factor models were implemented to explore measurement invariance across gender. Finally, mean differences in the subtests, index scores, as well as full scale IQ (FSIQ) were analyzed. The second-order three-factor model for age group 2:6–3:11 as well as the second-order five-factor model for age group 4:0–7:7 could be verified. For age group 2:6–3:11, full scalar invariance could be accepted, whereas partial scalar invariance could be established by freeing five nonequivalent subtest intercepts for age group 4:0–7:7. These findings support interpretable comparisons of the WPPSI-IV scores between girls and boys. For age group 4:0–7:7, partial invariance should be taken into account in these comparisons. Furthermore, girls aged 4:0–7:7 showed an advantage in processing speed (PS). Mean scores in any of the other cognitive abilities did not differ between girls and boys in both age groups. These results indicated measurement invariance across gender on the WPPSI-IV, so that the tests measure cognitive abilities in the same way for girls and boys. The current findings showed that gender differences in PS may emerge in early childhood, which might lead to gender differences in later educational skills.

Dimensional Evaluation of Cognitive Measures: Methodological Confounds and Theoretical Concerns

The current study provides a methodological review of studies supporting a general factor of intelligence as the primary model for contemporary measures of cognitive abilities. A further evaluation is provided by an empirical evaluation that compares statistical estimates using different approaches in a large sample of children (ages 9–13 years, N = 780) administered a comprehensive battery of cognitive measures. Results from this study demonstrate the ramifications of using the bifactor and Schmid–Leiman (BF/SL) technique and suggest that using BF/SL methods limit interpretation of cognitive abilities to only a general factor. The inadvertent use of BF/SL methods is demonstrated to impact both model dimensionality and variance estimates for specific measures. As demonstrated in this study, conclusions from both exploratory and confirmatory studies using BF/SL methods are significantly questioned, especially for studies with a questionable theoretical basis. Guidelines for the interpretation of cognitive test scores in applied practice are discussed.

Examination of five- and four-subtest short form IQ estimations for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth edition (WISC-V) in a mixed clinical sample

Evaluating general cognitive ability (i.e., intelligence) is common in neuropsychological practice, and identifying abbreviated assessments of intelligence is often advantageous. Despite the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition's (WISC-V) widespread contemporary use, limited research has identified clinically useful short form (SF) full scale IQ (FSIQ) estimations in clinical samples. This study sought to address this gap in the literature. Two hundred sixty-eight pediatric participants (M age = 9.79; 69% male; 88% Caucasian/White) who underwent psychological/neuropsychological evaluation were included. Mean scores for WISC-V scores fell in the low average-to-average ranges, consistent with the clinical nature of this sample (e.g., M FSIQ = 85.3). Ten unique SF combinations with five (pentad) and four (tetrad) subtests, each intentionally selected to represent a breadth of domains subsumed by WISC-V FSIQ, were described by summing subtest age-corrected scaled scores. Regression-based and prorated FSIQ estimates were calculated, and mean differences suggested some prorated estimates should be arithmetically adjusted. Both regression-based and prorated/adjusted methods provided FSIQ estimates that were accurate within five Standard Score points of true FSIQ for approximately 81-92% (pentad) and 65-76% (tetrads) of participants. Prorated/adjusted estimates appeared to provide somewhat better accuracy than regression-based estimates. Relationships between SFs and true FSIQ did not appear to be moderated by participant age, gender, nor how many WISC-V subtests were administered to participants within this archival sample (i.e., 7 vs. 10). Implications of these findings, including benefits, detriments, and other considerations of each SF combination, in addition to limitations of this study, are discussed in detail.

Use of translated and adapted versions of the WISC-V: Caveat emptor

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) is the most widely used intelligence test in the world. Now in its fifth edition, the WISC-V has been translated and adapted for use in nearly a dozen countries. Despite its popularity, numerous concerns have been raised about some of the procedures used to develop and validate translated and adapted versions of the test around the world. The purpose of this article is to survey the most salient of those methodological and statistical limitations. In particular, empirical data are presented that call into question the equating procedures used to validate the WISC-V Spanish, suggesting cautious use of that instrument. It is believed that the issues raised in the present article will be instructive for school psychologists engaged in the clinical assessment of intelligence with the WISC-V Spanish and with other translated and adapted versions around the world.

What cognitive processes are "sluggish" in sluggish cognitive tempo?

OBJECTIVE

Sluggish cognitive tempo refers to a constellation of symptoms that include slowed behavior/thinking, reduced alertness, and getting lost in one's thoughts. Despite the moniker "sluggish cognitive tempo," the evidence is mixed regarding the extent to which it is associated globally with slowed (sluggish) mental (cognitive) information processing speed (tempo).

METHOD

A well-characterized clinical sample of 132 children ages 8-13 years (M = 10.34, SD = 1.51; 47 girls; 67% White/non-Hispanic) were administered multiple, counterbalanced neurocognitive tests and assessed for sluggish cognitive tempo symptoms via multiple-informant reports.

RESULTS

Bayesian linear regressions revealed significant evidence against associations between sluggish cognitive tempo and computationally modeled processing speed (BF01 > 3.70), and significant evidence for associations with slower working memory manipulation speed. These findings were consistent across parent and teacher models, with and without control for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder inattentive symptoms and IQ. There was also significant evidence linking faster inhibition speed with higher parent-reported sluggish cognitive tempo symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide strong evidence against characterizing children with sluggish cognitive tempo symptoms as possessing a globally sluggish cognitive tempo. Instead, these symptoms appear to be related, to a significant extent, to executive dysfunction characterized by working memory systems that are too slow and inhibition systems that are too fast. Behaviorally, these findings suggest that requiring extra time to rearrange the active contents of working memory delays responding, whereas an overactive inhibition system likely terminates thoughts too quickly and therefore prevents intended behaviors from starting or completing, thereby giving the appearance that children are absent-minded or failing to act when expected. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Monte Carlo Modeling of Contemporary Intelligence Test (IQ) Factor Structure: Implications for IQ Assessment, Interpretation, and Theory

Researchers continue to debate the constructs measured by commercial ability tests. Factor analytic investigations of these measures have been used to develop and refine widely adopted psychometric theories of intelligence particularly the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) model. Even so, this linkage may be problematic as many of these investigations examine a particular instrument in isolation and CHC model specification across tests and research teams has not been consistent. To address these concerns, the present study used Monte Carlo resampling to investigate the latent structure of four of the most widely used intelligence tests for children and adolescents. The results located the approximate existence of the publisher posited CHC theoretical group factors in the Differential Abilities Scales-Second edition and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-Second edition but not in the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth edition or the Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Cognitive Abilities. Instead, the results supported alternative conceptualizations from independent factor analytic research. Additionally, whereas a bifactor model produced superior fit indices in two instruments (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth edition and Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Cognitive Abilities), a higher order structure was found to be superior in the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-Second edition and the Differential Abilities Scales-Second edition. Regardless of the model employed, the general factor captured a significant portion of each instrument's variance. Implications for IQ test assessment, interpretation, and theory are discussed.

Measurement Invariance Across Gender on the Second-Order Five-Factor Model of the German Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition

The present study investigated measurement invariance across gender on the German Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V). The higher order model that was preferred by the test publishers was tested on a population-representative German sample of 1,411 children and adolescents aged between 6 and 16 years. Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to test for measurement invariance. As soon as partial scalar invariance could be established by freeing nonequivalent subtest intercepts, results demonstrated that 11 out of 15 subtest scores have the same meaning for male and female children. These findings support interpretable comparisons of the WISC-V test scores between males and females but only in due consideration of partial scalar invariance and with respect to the underlying factor structure. Despite this, however, results did not support the overall structural validity of the higher order model. Thus, replacing the former Perceptual Reasoning factor by Fluid Reasoning and Visual Spatial may be considered inappropriate due to the redundancy of the FRI as a separate factor. Results also indicated that the WISC-V provides stronger measurement of general intelligence (Full Scale IQ) than measurements of cognitive subdomains (WISC-V indexes). Interpretative emphasis should thus be placed on the Full Scale IQ rather than the WISC-V indexes.

Exploratory Factor Analyses of the Intelligence and Development Scales-2: Implications for Theory and Practice

The factor structure of the intelligence and scholastic skills domains of the Intelligence and Development Scales-2 was examined using exploratory factor analyses with the standardization and validation sample (N = 2,030, aged 5 to 20 years). Results partly supported the seven proposed intelligence group factors. However, the theoretical factors Visual Processing and Abstract Reasoning as well as Verbal Reasoning and Long-Term Memory collapsed, resulting in a five-factor structure for intelligence. Adding the three scholastic skills subtests resulted in an additional factor Reading/Writing and in Logical-Mathematical Reasoning showing a loading on abstract Visual Reasoning and the highest general factor loading. A data-driven separation of intelligence and scholastic skills is not evident. Omega reliability estimates based on Schmid-Leiman transformations revealed a strong general factor that accounted for most of the true score variance both overall and at the group factor level. The possible usefulness of factor scores is discussed.

Construct Validity of the WISC-V in Clinical Cases: Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses of the 10 Primary Subtests

Independent exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) research with the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V) standardization sample has failed to provide support for the five group factors proposed by the publisher, but there have been no independent examinations of the WISC-V structure among clinical samples. The present study examined the latent structure of the 10 WISC-V primary subtests with a large (N = 2,512), bifurcated clinical sample (EFA, n = 1,256; CFA, n = 1,256). EFA did not support five factors as there were no salient subtest factor pattern coefficients on the fifth extracted factor. EFA indicated a four-factor model resembling the WISC-IV with a dominant general factor. A bifactor model with four group factors was supported by CFA as suggested by EFA. Variance estimates from both EFA and CFA found that the general intelligence factor dominated subtest variance and omega-hierarchical coefficients supported interpretation of the general intelligence factor. In both EFA and CFA, group factors explained small portions of common variance and produced low omega-hierarchical subscale coefficients, indicating that the group factors were of poor interpretive value.

Parent and child neurocognitive functioning predict response to behavioral parent training for youth with ADHD

Parental cognitive functioning is thought to play a key role in parenting behavior and may inform response to behavioral intervention. This open-label pilot study examined the extent to which parent and child cognition impacted response to behavioral parent training for children with ADHD. Fifty-four participants (27 parent-child dyads; Mages = 10.6 and 45.2 for children and parents, respectively) completed tasks assessing visuospatial and phonological working memory, inhibitory control, and choice-reaction speed at pre-treatment. Drift diffusion modeling decomposed choice-reaction time data into indicators of processing speed (drift rate) and response caution (boundary separation). Parents completed a 10-week manualized behavioral parent training program. Primary outcomes were pre- and post-treatment child ADHD and conduct problem severity, and parent-reported relational frustration and parenting confidence. Bayesian multiple regressions assessed parent and child cognitive processes as predictors of post-treatment outcomes, controlling for pre-treatment behavior. Better child visuospatial and phonological WM and higher parental response caution were associated with greater reductions in inattention. For conduct problems, better parental self-regulation (stronger inhibitory control and greater response caution) predicted fewer post-treatment conduct problems. Higher parental response caution also predicted lower post-treatment relational frustration and higher parental confidence. Bayesian evidence supported no relation between parent and child cognitive functions and treatment-related changes in hyperactivity. This pilot study demonstrates that cognitive processes central to etiologic theories of ADHD and models of parenting behavior can be successfully integrated into treatment outcome research to inform which families are most likely to benefit from behavioral interventions. This study demonstrates the feasibility of bridging the translational research gap between basic and applied clinical science and facilitates research on the role of cognition in psychosocial interventions.

Investigating the Theoretical Structure of the Differential Ability Scales—Second Edition Through Hierarchical Exploratory Factor Analysis

When the Differential Ability Scales–Second Edition (DAS-II) was developed, the instrument’s content, structure, and theoretical orientation were amended. Despite these changes, the Technical Handbook did not report results from exploratory factor analytic investigations, and confirmatory factor analyses were implemented using selected subtests across the normative age groups from the total battery. To address these omissions, the present study investigated the theoretical structure of the DAS-II using principal axis factoring followed by the Schmid–Leiman procedure with participants from the 5- to 8-year-old age range to determine the degree to which the DAS-II theoretical structure proposed in the Technical Handbook could be replicated. Unlike other age ranges investigated where at most 14 subtests were administered, the entire DAS-II battery was normed on participants aged 5 to 8 years, making it well suited to test the full instrument’s alignment with theory. Results suggested a six-factor solution that was essentially consistent with the Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC)-based theoretical structure suggested by the test publisher and simple structure was attained. The only exception involved two subtests (Picture Similarities and Early Number Concepts) that did not saliently load on a group factor. Implications for clinical practice are discussed.

The Development of a Motor-Free Short-Form of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fifth Edition

Purpose. This study aimed to develop a motor-free short-form of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fifth Edition (WISC-V) that allows clinicians to estimate the Full Scale Intelligence Quotients of youths with motor impairments. Method. Using the reliabilities and intercorrelations of six WISC-V motor-free subtests, psychometric methodologies were applied to develop look-up tables for four Motor-free Short-form indices: Verbal Comprehension Short-form, Perceptual Reasoning Short-form, Working Memory Short-form, and a Motor-free Intelligence Quotient. Index-level discrepancy tables were developed using the same methods to allow clinicians to statistically compare visual, verbal, and working memory abilities. Results. The short-form indices had excellent reliabilities ( r = .92-.97) comparable to the original WISC-V. Conclusion. This motor-free short-form of the WISC-V is a reliable alternative for the assessment of intellectual functioning in youths with motor impairments. Clinicians are provided with user-friendly look-up tables, index level discrepancy tables, and base rates, displayed similar to those in the WISC-V manuals to enable interpretation of assessment results.

Scores in Space: Multidimensional Scaling of the WISC-V

The purpose of this study was to use multidimensional scaling (MDS) to investigate relations among scores from the standardization sample of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fifth edition (WISC-V; Wechsler, 2014). Nonmetric two-dimensional MDS maps were selected for interpretation. The most cognitively complex subtests and indexes were located near the center of the maps. Subtests were also grouped together in the way that they are organized in the primary and complementary indexes, and not necessarily on content surface features. Naming Speed and Symbol Translation scores may be better off kept as separate indexes, and Digit Span Sequencing appeared to add more complexity to the Digit Span subtest. One implication related to score interpretation is that General Ability Index (GAI) and Cognitive Proficiency Index (CPI) may be distinguished by the level of complexity of the subtests included in each index (i.e., more complex subtests included in GAI and less complex subtests included in the CPI).

What Does the WRAML2 Core Battery Measure? Utilizing Exploratory and Confirmatory Techniques to Disclose Higher Order Structure

The present study examined the factor structure of the Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning-Second Edition (WRAML2) core battery with participants from the normative sample aged 9 to 90 years ( n = 880) using higher order exploratory and confirmatory factor analytic techniques that were not reported in the in the WRAML2 Administration and Technical Manual. Exploratory factor analysis results suggested only one factor, whereas confirmatory factor analysis results favored the three factors posited by the test authors. Although model fit statistics were equivalent for the oblique, indirect hierarchical, and direct hierarchical measurement models, it was determined that the bifactor model best disclosed the influence of latent dimensions on WRAML2 manifest variables. In the three-factor bifactor model, the general factor accounted for 31% of the total variance and 69% of the common variance, whereas the three first-order factors combined accounted for 41% of the total variance and 31% of the common variance. Latent factor reliability coefficients (as estimated by ω_h) indicated that only the general factor was measured with enough precision to warrant confident clinical interpretation. Implications for clinical interpretation of WRAML2 scores and the procedures utilized in the development of related measures are discussed.

Orthogonal Higher Order Structure of the WISC-IV Spanish Using Hierarchical Exploratory Factor Analytic Procedures

As recommended by Carroll, the present study examined the factor structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fourth Edition Spanish (WISC-IV Spanish) normative sample using higher order exploratory factor analytic techniques not included in the WISC-IV Spanish Technical Manual. Results indicated that the WISC-IV Spanish subtests were properly aligned with theoretically proposed factors; however, application of the Schmid and Leiman procedure found that the g factor accounted for large portions of total and common variance, whereas the four first-order factors accounted for small portions of total and common variance. Implications for clinical interpretation of the measurement instrument are discussed.